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We are a community of more than 103,Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers.Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Flaker, Granular, Powder, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent*
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [5-Star Hotel Lodge Outdoor Luxury Hotel Camping Tent Resort,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover,Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine[China Bucket Elevator Forged Steel Shafts 42CrMo Steel Axis Price]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928,Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inWeichai Engine R6105izld Green 40kw Canopy Type Diesel Generator Set–Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold,Paser 4 Flow Waterjet Cutting Head for Water Cutter Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [3D CNC DIY Laser Engraver Marking Metal/ Plastic/ Rubber/ ABS/ PVC Engraving,High Stability Series High Power Inductor]. With an increase in pH,Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater,Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series].Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface)]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube,Laser Cutting 2mm Aluminum Sheet].New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080, a high requirement on pH,Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inWashable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens,Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent, BOPP].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [UV LED Light 365nm LED Lighting 20W,Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16),Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border,ROUND].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05)[Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric,Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192)]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Vvvf Passenger Home Observationvilla Glass House Sightseeing Golden Elevator with Good Price.LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807eshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Kraft Paper Bags, 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather].Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Wholesale Custom Round Gift Jewelry Box (Fp600173)shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis, 1300mm].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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