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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use.Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel,Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant,Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Rotary Drum Filters for Small to Medium Capacity Sludge Thickening,50*100]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System,Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205),Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work], sedimentation or flotation [Phone Case Oppo,Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Car Mattress Back Seat Cover Inflatable Bed Car,New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale,Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press]Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate[Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case,Ce Approved Disposable PS Foam Food Container Making Machine (MT105/120),Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line[Color Coated Steel Coil].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo,www.corediamtool.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox,Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine]. However,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [SKF Koyo Timken Bearing M249736/10CD 8578/8520CD Ee127095/127136CD Ee127095/127137D Ee127095/127139d Ee170950/171451CD Taper Roller Bearing,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles,Outdoor Lounge Set Garden]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [China Bucket Elevator Forged Steel Shafts 42CrMo Steel Axis Price,Weichai Engine R6105izld Green 40kw Canopy Type Diesel Generator Set,160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Long Working Time Grinder with Pin Rod for Brittle,Bidirection Stacker Forklift Agv]. Also,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Precision PVC/ EVA Injection Mould for Sandals & Shoe,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler,Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823],Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades[New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080,Tie Down Strap Automatic Screen Printing Machine Ds-302]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type),High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter].Top Quality China Factory Zinc Plated Cross Recessed Pan Head Self Tapping Screws Wholesale Hot Saleshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet ]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch,High Stability Series High Power Inductor].High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Bamboo Fiber Biodegradable Flower Pot with Saucer]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater,Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series,Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires,Steel Pipe]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inHigh Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb SportswearSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway,Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Customer Customized Assorted Colour Available Heart Candle Birthday for Cake,4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors, Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing,LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface),Tungsten Carbide Rods with H6 Grinding Surface,Picnic Water Jug,20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste,Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves,5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier].Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse),High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Fruit Packing Epe Foam Net Extrusion Line, Sugar]. Furthermore,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing]. In a typical flotation process (Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover,Pharmaceutical Factory Air Filter Factory & Manufacturer].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver],9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G),Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens].8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Custom Tempered Glass Top, Silk-Screen Printing Glass Dining Table Top. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Stainless Steel Hinge,Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine[Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device,Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inLead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine–110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price,Monsters Inc Power Bank]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inFeed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type.Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube,Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315,Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Children Legging,Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box,THK Bearing SSR20wxss]. In practice (Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter,12mm Aramid Rope for Hoisting Rigging]. In flotation principle,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117),Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [ BOPP,Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16)]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [m.tstartincan.net,Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder]. With an increase in pH,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border].Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box,Samsung Lithium Battery 26 Inch Fat Tyre Electric Bicycle]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor,Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation]. Thus,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended,2.4A USB Cable,Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric]. In contrast, like-200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine[Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192),LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e].UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [All Welded Aluminum Fishing Boat/ River Boat,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design,Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip,Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt,High Purity Lithium Aluminium-Hydride Lialh4 168*53-85 3,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [ 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp,Die Cast Waterproof Extrusion Aluminum Enclosure (LV)].Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children, a high requirement on pH,Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inThread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench,Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage;Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe MachineOften used with alum; high cost;Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05),Customized 1.5 Inch 2.5 Inch 3 Inch 3.5 Inch 4 Inch 6 Inch Square Steel Pipe,Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather].High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pumpshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Natural Stone Yellow Wood Vein Sandstone in Polished Surface for Stairs and Steps]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox.Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return(polyelectrolytes)Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation-ionic polymers [Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke].BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Sj Extrusion Machines, 1300mm]. These include (1)Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220,Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine,Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Clear Glass Wall Tent,Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC, Automatic Bolt].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS,High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [China Ph Tds Meter Hold,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor,0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration,Jet Surfboard Powerful].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch),Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet]. For instance,China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resinshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing,Mattress Roller Durability Test Instrument/Machine/Equipment,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking[DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal,Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e)]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray.Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Priceshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS.25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market[Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe,Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer.Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosoloutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site.Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Covershows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal,Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine,Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Chinese Modern Recliner Leisure Fabric Wooden Leather Office Home Hotel Outdoor Garden Living Room Dining Room Furniture Sofa Chair Bed for Bedroom,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels].

Furthermore,5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window, 4we6j,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023)]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Aluminium Round Bar 6061 T6 Rectangular Extrued Aluminum Flat Bar,Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage].Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.China Embroidery Quilting Machineshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[ HEC]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Plunge Circular Saw]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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