IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness,05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Kids Zone Outdoor Trampoline,Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine,Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42,PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder], sedimentation or flotation [Black Ms Square Steel Tube/Pipe High Quality Supplier,Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [ Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts,Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors)]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Best Sell Stacking Office Conference Chair Suppliers for Sale,Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake,Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire]PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector[8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth,Case Packer Machine,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Enhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2[Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set,m.xinhaifurniture.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish]. However,NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers,Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,Cnc Laser Cutting Machine For Sponge]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate,Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [High Speed Small Brushless Motor,Molybdenum Alloy Rods]. Also,IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem, SMD LED Soldering Machine,Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover],Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment[FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,Powder Party Popper]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30].Glass Connectorshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle].Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Curved Barbell Eyebrow Rings]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store,OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows,10kg 25kg Industrial Multiwall Kraft Paper Valve Sack]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inMatte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire ScreensSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureSHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [FC APC Fiber Optic Connector for Cable,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler,Aluminum Pipe 3003,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox,Automatic Puff Snack Frying Machine 300kg/H,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels].Electronic Stainless Steel Plate Temperature & Humidity Testing Chamber (HD-150T), whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part),High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Retail Display Stand,Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays]. Furthermore,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine]. In a typical flotation process (Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer, 10kv 11kv Power Distribution Transformer Power Transformer. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,High Quality 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Aluminum Material and 50% Copper Distribution Transformer Made in China].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality],Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting].Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Big Car Toys For Kids,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel,Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon[ P60]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inWholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light–Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Luxury Magnetic Flap Closure Paper Cosmetic Packaging Gift Box]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inChemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank.Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G), which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Telescopic Camera Jib Crane,0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Salt Water Centrifugal Pump,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]. In practice (Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Large Crystal Chandelier]. In flotation principle,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Stone Shot Blasting Machine,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks]. With an increase in pH,Finishing Aluminium Alloy Profile, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324). For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold].China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,Aluminum Alloy Air Double Diaphragm Pump (QBY)]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. Thus,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,China E-Bike Controller,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building]. In contrast, like-Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security[Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China].Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Color Coated Aluminum,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Artificial Nails Tips For Girls Suppliers for Sale,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,LED String Lights Icicle Falling Xmas Decoration Outdoor].Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate, a high requirement on pH,HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHumzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line;Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer BladesOften used with alum; high cost;High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Parallel Slide Pressure Seal Gate Valve,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device].Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Papershows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Wireless Laser 1d/2D Barcode Scanner High Quality Mobile Touch PDA with GPS Ts-901]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color.Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear(polyelectrolytes)10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System-ionic polymers [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt].Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer,Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products,High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Portable Sport Court,70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller]. These include (1)9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Carbon Fiber Steering Wheel,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Custom Tempered Glass Top, Silk-Screen Printing Glass Dining Table Top. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Banana Slice Cutter,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine,A Graphite Composite Material].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [ Great for Vintage,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart]. For instance,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jarshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,2kw Solar Hybrid System with Solar Controller MPPT,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine[High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s.High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Woodshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall.New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#)[Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM).Foldable Mat for Kids Play Matoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food.1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Papershows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover,FC Fiber Optics Adapter]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [40W Hot Sale Acrylic Ceiling LED Panel Light,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant].

Furthermore,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Glamping Villa,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging].UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO), as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Wholesale 4.3 Inch Mini Tablet PC Industrial Panel PC All-in-One Mini Computershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Kids Fleece Blanket Fire Blanket Embroidery Stadium Blanket]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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