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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Large Silicone Breast Enhancers,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine,MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant], sedimentation or flotation [Diaphragm RO Water Pump for Reverse Osmosis Purifier,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [ New Zealand,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Bearing Pretightening Wave Ring,Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape]25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine[Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,2018 New Style Mini Pendant Shades -,New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine[Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30,Car Led Side Light/Lamp]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag,Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332)]. However,Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry,Genuine Leather Handbag]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation,Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Metal Plasma Cutter Plasma Fiber Laser Cutting Machine 1530fd]. Also,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC), for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h),Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable],European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle[Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,2/3/4 Wires COB 15W 20W LED Track Light with 15/24/38 Degree Beam Angle]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture].Glass Tilt Table /Air Float Table /Manual Glass Cutting Tableshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof].Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Concrete Admixture 5% Snf Superplasticizer Supplier & Manufacturer]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board).

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector,Beautiful Glass Craft Bottle /Glass Vase for Home Decoration]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inBSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread EndsSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHeat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package,Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Colour Coated Roofing Sheet Machine,60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Toughened Railing Glass,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,2019 Men′s Business Shoulder Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox,Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed].Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable),Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Nude Walking,Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber]. Furthermore,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields]. In a typical flotation process (Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp,Turbo Row Grinding Wheel].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China],Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction].JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Chemical Packing Ceramic Cross Partition Ring for Drying,OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Stainless Steel Bowl, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount[Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve,CL1C-GW123 Comlom PC Water Bottle, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inStc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor–Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,30W Fiber Laser Marking Machine Deaktop Laser Printer for Plastic Bottle /Aluminium Product/Metallic Products]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inOffice Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table.Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100),Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [m.mutrade.com,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve]. In practice (Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle,Vinyl Tile PVC Tile PVC Flooring]. In flotation principle,2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Plywood Polishing Sander,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer]. With an increase in pH,Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine].Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Hotsale Outdoor Gazebo Tents for Sale]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise]. Thus,Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Customized Glass Railing Stainless Steel Handrail for Stairs Flence,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant]. In contrast, like-Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design[Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator, Snack Food Packaging].Hot Sale Spindle Less Veneer Rotary Peeling Lathe, 1300mm, 2600mm.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Fashion Kids School Backpack Bag Nylon Cartoon Bookbag,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System,Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve,Gl Load Break Switch Disconnector Switch AC Isolator 160A,Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,4mm Design Pattern Acid Etched Mirror for Door and Wardrobe Decoration].Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle, a high requirement on pH,4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inInterior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank;Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto PartsOften used with alum; high cost;25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012),Good Quality Full Automatic High Speed Paper Bag Making Machine,Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray].10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drillshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Outdoor Base Station Diamond Antenna]. There are various types of organic coagulants,It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing.Container House as Kinder Garden, Modular House as School, Container House for Clinic or Hospital(polyelectrolytes)8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth, Car Spray Inflatable Booth, Stock Tent for Sale, American paint Booth Style-ionic polymers [Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer].Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting,Black Steel Square Pipe, Bright Surface for Furniture, Rectangular Black Pipe,High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Pet Brush Filament and Synthetic Fiber for Brush,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo]. These include (1)New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery,Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return,Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Cheap Cnc Milling,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [High Quality Low Price HDPE LDPE PLA PBAT Corn Starch Compostable Biodegradable Medical Household Large Big Chicken Tall Trash Black Colors Plastic Garbage Bags,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making,Low Budget Cheap Middle Ankle Safety Shoes with PU Sole for Workman].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W]. For instance,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discountshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Random Sampling Machine,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade[ Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings,High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover.Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitorshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light, Soda Ash(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange.Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws[100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light,304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof.Custom Tempered Glass Topoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag.Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928shows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW),Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Double Roll Forming Machine,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll].

Furthermore,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058),PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes,Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Door Cylinder Lock Factory OEM/ODM Products,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance].Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Lip Pencil Custom Logoshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Desktop Magnifier With Led Light]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008), and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System, 304].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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