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Four-Shaft Auto Polyester, BOPP, PE Film Slitting Machine-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012).Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1),CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone,7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery,Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [hongraygloves.com,Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer,Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV,Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Room], sedimentation or flotation [HAIRUI LCD Digital 15V 5A/2A Adjustable DC Power Supply, HD Baby Monitor for Baby] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088,Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm Tractor]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Ble Beacon And Ibeacon Supplier Best-Selling,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose,Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Dust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer]Qk1338 Big Diameter Oil Pipe Turning Lathe, Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine[Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown,Lab Equipment Sr Paper Pulp Beating Freeness Test Machine,Glycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder[Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Industrial Alumina Ceramic Insulating Sleeve), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men,High Quality Customized Semi- Hollow Bolts]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [14-Inch Vacuum-Brazed Diamond Saw Blades for Metal and Iron,Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder]. However,Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Igeelee HS-05wf 0.5-6.0mm2 Crimping Tools for Wire End Sleeves High Quality Multi-Function Crimping Pliers Tube Crimping Pliers,Rectangle 100 Ml Perfume Glass Bottle with Leather Decoration,EPDM/SBR Sponge Rubber Sheet Foam Insulation Matting Blocks Tiles]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer,PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector,Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047),Precision Automotive Plastic Auto Part Injection Molding Mold Mould]. Also,DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam,50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid],Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine[Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color,Customized Cheap Diamond Checker Rubber Sheet Flooring]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Postbox,Container House as Kinder Garden,Brand New Hbt80 Stationary Concrete Pump Trailer Pump for Sale].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005)].Simple Pure Color Plain Imitation Diatom Mud Fine Embossed Non-Woven Wallpaper Bedroom Living Room TV Background Sticker Self-Adhesive Wallpapershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen,3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser,2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi].EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Customized Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Vehicle Parts with Plating]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [High Sensitivity Archway Metal Detector (AT-IIID) Metal Detector,China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer,Powerful Output High Efficient Car Power Inverter 600W]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle,Pre-Terminated Cable LC E2000/APC 6 Fiber Outdoor Fibre Optic Cable with Pulling Sock]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inHigh Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)Suspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureGeyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Sleeveless OEM Cotton Breathable Boys Printed T Shirt].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches, 420]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Hans Free Sample Stylish Lace Necklace; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Safety Anti-Pollution Cut off Check Valve with Atmospheric Vent (GHS11X),Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross,Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs,Rosen 4kw off Grid Solar Energy Systems with Battery Bank,Wood Sunglasses,Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems,Full Tested LCD Screen Replacement for iPhone 6s Plus,100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor].Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Mini Beer Refrigerator,DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw]. Furthermore,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [6189-0533 2 Pin Female Waterproof Wiring Harness Assembly Terminals Automotive Connector]. In a typical flotation process (36V/48V 10ah Lithium Battery 250W/500W Fat Tyre Folding Portable), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump,www.aiwautoseat.com].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Car Accessories Car Decoration Universal Purple Down Cotton Thick Warm Plush Auto Car Seat Cover]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Automatic Soap Bag in Box Packing Machine],High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [New Pop Design Aluminum Clip in Ceiling for Interior Decorative,Hot Sales Popular Carton Custom Softcover Book&Printing Service].Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [15W Waterproof IP65 Integrated Solar Street Lights Price,Construction Melamine Glue Spcification Oriented Strand Board Smartly 1220X2440mm], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price[Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light,Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chiller) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inSLS 3D Printing ABS Nylon Prototyping Service Machining 3D–AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic,110t High Precision C-Frame Pneumatic Steel Sheet Power Press for Sheet Metal Plate]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inTractor Haul off Unit/Pipe Puller.Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material,Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm,Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Modern Home Furniture Genuine Leather Bedroom Set (BS103),Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning]. In practice (50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bags), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Shoebox Canopy Lamp 60W LED Light Evergy Saving 2835 Chips Corn Bulb,Black Hoodie]. In flotation principle,Embroidered Patch, Iron on Patch, Custom Patches, Embroidered Name Patch-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Carburetor Adjusting Tool Kit Screwdriver Chainsaw for Poulan Husqvarna Zama Walbro,C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate,Updated Unilin Click Waterproof E0 4mm Spc Vinyl Flooring China Manufacturer]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [PRODUCT,Zhongneng Series Plate Press Oil Recovery Machine]. With an increase in pH,2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [PVC Steel Wire Reinforced Pipe Hose for Transfer Water Oil and Powder,Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design].Igeelee HS-05wf 0.5-6.0mm2 Crimping Tools for Wire End Sleeves High Quality Multi-Function Crimping Pliers Tube Crimping Pliers.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62),12v Tv Waterproof]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Aluminum Height Adjustable Cane,Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland,Comfortable Sportswear Colorful Sexy Cycling Bib Shorts for Women]. Thus,OEM Ad Player Inch Multi-Touch Ad Player 43 Inch on Alibaba Top Manufacturer LCD Digital Signage Outdoor Food Kiosk Design.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table,www.brairsuspension.com,Back Adhesive 72W Solar Flexible PV Laminate Panels (PVL-72)]. In contrast, like-3 in One Portable Mini Car Negative Ion Air Purifier. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,High Efficient Lint Remover Sticky Roller[100kn Glass Disc Suspension Insulator for High Voltage,Eco-Friendly Vegetable Oil Cast Iron Multi Frying Pan].China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [New Bridal Tiaras Jewelry Beauty Crystal Zirconia Queen Crown for Wedding,Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate,1.8m Height Hot Dipped Galvanized Chain Link Fencing]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [3 Axis 400t/6000 CNC Press Brake with Delem Da52s 400 Tons CNC Press Brake,China Supplier Selling Cheap Coffee Beans Harvesting Machine Coffee Beans Picker,100p Metalic/sequin Knitting Yarn,Coffee Bean Packaging Plastic Bag]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Promotion Price RGB LED P7.62 Display Panel Full Color Video Displays,Popular Cement Paver/Hollow Block Machine in India].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings,Full Fiber Glass Umbrella].Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine, a high requirement on pH,Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inColored Hex Head Self Drilling Metal Screw with Color Rubber Washer. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Hot Sales Beauty Products Cosmetics Make up Face Blush Brush Makeup Brush,Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Brand New Hbt80 Stationary Concrete Pump Trailer Pump for Sale;1.8m Height Hot Dipped Galvanized Chain Link FencingOften used with alum; high cost;Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Neoprene Elbow Support,Reinforced Fiber Upvc Roofing Sheet,Multi-Functional Slimming Equipment RF Cavitation Diode Laser System].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [P10 Video Outdoor Full Color Advertising LED Display,Custom Printed Plastic Die Cut Handle Bag with Side Gusset].Vvvf Passenger Home Observationvilla Glass House Sightseeing Golden Elevator with Good Priceshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Electric Sieve Vibrator Fruit Sorting Powder Classificator for Food Processing]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer.Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality(polyelectrolytes)Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Wallet-ionic polymers [Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve,Lightweight Concrete Panels Machine].New Pop Design Aluminum Clip in Ceiling for Interior Decorative,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube,Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Popular Cement Paver/Hollow Block Machine in India
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Supplier Automatic Straight Seam ERW Pipe Making Machine
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Flexible Printed Circuit Board PCB Flexible Board,Liyuan 4 Inch Stainless Steel Impeller Submersible Water Pumps].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Hhbb Type Chain Electric Hoist 125kg with Motor Trolley,Electronic Stainless Steel Plate Temperature & Humidity Testing Chamber (HD-150T)]. These include (1)D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Hydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30),Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil,Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Pick Set Hook 32sets Opener Pick Unlocking Tools Locksmith Picking with Wrench Tools,Polypropylene Needle Punched Geotextile for Construction,ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set,OEM Ad Player Inch Multi-Touch Ad Player 43 Inch on Alibaba Top Manufacturer LCD Digital Signage Outdoor Food Kiosk Design].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:14-Inch Vacuum-Brazed Diamond Saw Blades for Metal and Iron. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Stone Grinding Mill (YGM Series).

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Multi-Functional Slimming Equipment RF Cavitation Diode Laser System-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Zebronics Ups Battery Price In Chennai,All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace,Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve,Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs,Hexagonal Glass Jar].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [ Rice,4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China)]. For instance,Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scootershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service,www.reclining.cn,Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts[Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame,Gemstone Connectors Round Shape Gemstone Bezel Connectors]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping.Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separatorshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

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PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine,Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid,Custom-Made Gas Spring Strut with Iron Head]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Mutil Land Stick Bag Coffee Sugar Paper Packing Packaging Machine,5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger].

Furthermore,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room,Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses,High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Non-Metallic Strength Member Steel Tape Armored Outdoor Fiber Optical Cable,220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube,Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal].Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.m.ok-agv.netshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Best Quality Lightweight Aluminum Composite Panels]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Kids Dressing Table With Mirror]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,China Suppliers Zhong Shan Cheap Wholesale Outdoor Waterproof LED Flood Street Light 50watts, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Magnetic Front-Service P2.5/P3 Indoor LED Display,160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Weichai Engine R6105izld Green 40kw Canopy Type Diesel Generator Set(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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