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Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse> Sugar>Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing

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Abstract

Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades.High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable,Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens,Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Container Seal Lock,Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G)]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens,Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain,Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb], sedimentation or flotation [Indoor Self Service for Small Business Wireless Network Router,Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type,SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Magnolia Honokiol 95%,Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315,Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box]Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s[THK Bearing SSR20wxss,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type,Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light[4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117)), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent,Seedling Soil Heat Cable Plant Heating Cable by Chinese Factory]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [ BOPP,Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16)]. However,Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder,Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump,LED Reflective Jacket Safety Product for Wholesale]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor,Cardboard Quartz Sample Folder]. Also,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation,Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended,Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric],New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#)[Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192),Quick Release Coupling Motor Shaft Coupling Flange Coupling]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e,All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer].Hidden Mini Car Key Camerashows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors].Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM), thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [38PCS Socket Wrench Hand Tool Set Hardware Tool Screwdriver Set]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil, 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp,Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench,New Hight Speed Paper Bag Making Machine]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inChinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden DecorationSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature12V Car Tail Light for Ranger
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05)].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010,Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Feed Additives Fish Meal for Animal Poultry Nutrition,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather,High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke,1850mm*80mm Wood Product Laser Tube,Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis, 1300mm].Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220),UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO). These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Fashion Men Padded Flannel Shirt,Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine]. Furthermore,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen]. In a typical flotation process (Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [ Automatic Bolt,Hydraulic Tipping Mini Dumper 500kgs Used for Farm Work or Construction Works].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342],High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck].Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [30W Full Color Laser Light Outdoor RGB Beam Effect Laser,Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102,Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube[0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox,Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch)–Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet,8006/8011/8079/8021 Aluminum Foil for Food Industry with FDA Certification]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inChina Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin.Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Bulk Collagen Capsules,Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e),Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price]. In practice (Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine,m.qingdaoflrope.com]. In flotation principle,Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol,Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve,High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Treadmill For Dog,Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine]. With an increase in pH,Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels].Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window,Mini CATV FTTH 1550nm Optical Receiver Node]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [ 4we6j,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023),Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter]. Thus,Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens,Water Cooled Argon Arc Welding Torch,4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera]. In contrast, like-Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass[Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage,LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light].Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Glass Ball Hanging Decoration, HEC,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet,m.emdachina.com,Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080,Professional 360 Magneto-Optical Opt IPL Hair Removal].Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray, a high requirement on pH,Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inGeeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom,Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS;25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria MarketOften used with alum; high cost;2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine,Custom Retractable Steel Guide Way Accordion Shield Bellows Cover,Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve,High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier].Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sportsshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Vertical Form Fill and Seal Central Sealing Automatic Packing Machine for Granule]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor.Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff(polyelectrolytes)5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry-ionic polymers [Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing].Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck,Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [ T2/Tp2,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [120W LED High Bay Light UFO Interior Light,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole]. These include (1)Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple,LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part,Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Multifunctional Solar System,PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line),High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants,Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Porous Filter,Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector,Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine,High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,Ce Rohs Led Panel 600x600mm 40w High Quality Supplier].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts]. For instance,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mmshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women,Heat Press 16x24,Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites[High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction,Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Stability Series High Power Inductor.Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox.Grey 0.43mm Fire Resistant Blanket Insulation Fireproof Fiberglass Cloth[Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5),Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module.USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Windowoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo.4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Useshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch).

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Tempered Acid Etched Glass,One Wheel Hovershoes].

Furthermore,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions, Bright Surface for Furniture,Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Hydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30), biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Outdoor Amplifier Aluminum Die Casting Housing (XD-58B),Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa,High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal].China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Food Grade DIY Fondant Silicone Baking Toolsshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[New Plastic Disposable PS Foam Lunch Box Production Line Mt115/130]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch,Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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