304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe-reviewed chapter
Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic
Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556
Downloaded: 1551
Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold.Boyang Jumbo Bag and Ton Bag Filling Packing Machine for Fertilizer, Flour, Sugar,High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.
The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover,CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [m.sprayer-guohaha.com,High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine,Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels], sedimentation or flotation [Best Camping Canvas Double Hammock,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [ 4we6j]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023),Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Supreme Snapback Hats Supplier & Factory,Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens,4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage](Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine[LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light,Air Cooled Process Chiller for Plastic Cast Film Machine,Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper[ HEC].
In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,6ml Custom Design Flower Shape Car Perfume Hanging Diffuser Glass Bottle with Wooden Cap]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet,Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping]. However,12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man,China Hydraulic Side Tipper Trailer]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080,Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home,100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades,Sem921 Motor Grader for Sale]. Also,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine,Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth,Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve],Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters[High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier,Factory Sale Dx51d G550 Zinc Coated/Galvanized Steel Strip for Packing]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports,Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing].
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [ T2/Tp2].Size0/Color/Organic/Pullulan/HPMC/Gel/Hollow/Veggie/Transparent/Clear/Empty Capsulesshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole,Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple,LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part].Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Featured]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].
Also,Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light,PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line),High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants,SRS Empty Mini Clear Color 1ml Glass Bottle with Roll on Top]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inHeating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color.
| Coagulant characteristics | MOW characteristics | Physical characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Coagulant type | Water quality | Flotation/settling time |
| Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors | Suspended solids | Mixing intensity |
| Coagulant quality | Temperature | 0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration |
| Coagulant lifespan | pH | Chemical stability during storage |
| Proper solution makeup and dilution | Alkalinity | |
| Ionic constituents |
Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector].
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes,PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [CO2 Dynamic Laser Marking Machine for Paper 800*800mm Worktable,High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm,PVC WPC Foam Board /Plate/Sheet/Slab Production Line,Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women,Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising,High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction].Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.
For instance (Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type),Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Best Quality Plain Particle Board Chipboard,Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)]. Furthermore,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5)]. In a typical flotation process (Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window,150W High-Efficiency Galvanometer-Scanning Laser Engraving Machine for Jeans and Denim].
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers],Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product].China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Energy-Saving Home Elevator, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Zhongneng Series Plate Press Oil Recovery Machine. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Automatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [High Seat Folding Beach Chair,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Eco-Friendly Vegetable Oil Cast Iron Multi Frying Pan,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile[One Wheel Hovershoes]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent,Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inGPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions–Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [ Bright Surface for Furniture,China Security Devices]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inBlue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves.Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings,Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s,Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.
Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Lightweight Concrete Panels Machine, Foam Concrete Wall Panel Machine. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Automatic Horizontal Serve Motor Low Pressure PE Plastic Fast Food Cup Box and Bottle Caps Making Molding Machine Manufacturer,High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal,CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs Hormone]. In practice (Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube,5D Full Surrounded Leather XPE Auto Parts Car Mat for FIAT 500]. In flotation principle,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine,Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch].
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump,BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Anti-Sideload Beam Load Cell 3kg 10kg Single Point Weight Sensor 30kg Counting Scale Load Cell Could Be Customzied,4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp]. With an increase in pH,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor,Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk].Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291.
Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty,Cable Lugs Insulated 2.5mm Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube,Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry,D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel]. Thus,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline.
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration,Lw Horizontal Continuous Decanter Centrifuge,18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street]. In contrast, like-Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs[900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants,Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet].Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet.
Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Monoammonium Phosphate Map,Easy Installation 4FT Plastic Folding Picnic Table (M-X1804),Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line,Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping,China Factory Price Ceramics Grade CMC,En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel,China Supplier Automatic Straight Seam ERW Pipe Making Machine].
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit,Bamboo Veneer Sheets].Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover, a high requirement on pH,Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inPower Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon,Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
| Name | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O | Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Good Quality 600mm 9W Energy Saving Aluminum 160lm/W LED Tube Light; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range |
| Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 | Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator;Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve | Often used with alum; high cost;Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W |
| Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15 | In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum | Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives |
| Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 | Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity |
| Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O | Effective between pH 4 and 11 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum |
| Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O | Not as pH sensitive as lime | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity |
| Lime Ca(OH)2 | Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent | pH-dependent;Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch; overdose can result in poor effluent quality |
Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Heat Transfer Sublimation Aluminum Sheet for Advertising Board,Borosilicate Glass Coffee Cup,Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable].
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Protective Roof Rubber Blocks,8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids]. Inductorshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [A4 Notebook With Spiral]. There are various types of organic coagulants,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD.Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale(polyelectrolytes)86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W-ionic polymers [Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water,DC100 Long Service Life Air Suspension Turbo Blower for Pneumatic Conveying].Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook,Graphite Petroleum Coke Carbon Additive, Graphitized Recarburizer,Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete.
| Name | Formula | Typical properties | Uses |
|---|---|---|---|
| Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl | PAC 23 | * 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring |
| MEGAPAC 23 | |||
| ALCHLOR AC | * SG 1.33 | ||
| * 83–84% basicity | |||
| PROFLOC A23 | * 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l | ||
| Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3 | PAC-10 LB | * 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country |
| MEGAPAC 10 | |||
| * SG 1.18 | |||
| * 50% basicity | |||
| * 10.5% w/w Cl | |||
| * 245 g/l | |||
| Polyaluminium silicosulphate Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58 | PASS® | * 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w Al | Forms flocs easily |
| * SG 1.34 | |||
| * 54% basicity | |||
| Polyferric sulfate Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7 | PFS® | * 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3 | Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater |
| * SG 1.54 | |||
| * 10% basicity | |||
| * 673 g/l |
Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [200W 12V24VDC Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator for Sale Light, MCB].
There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [8000bph Automatic Drinking Water Filling Machinery/ Water Bottling Production Line, Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags]. These include (1)China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts,Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade,ISO and Ce Approved Digital Thermometer for Both Hospital and Home Use]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [China SS304 2b Fininsh Stainless Steel Price Per Kg,Mobile Phones LCD Screen for Huawei Mate 9 Lite Bll-L23 Honor 6X Gr5 2017 LCD Touch Screen/Display,High Frequency Welding Pipe Roll Forming Machine].
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller,1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration.
Dispersions: In this case,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit, Easy Light Cruiser 8inch. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation(emulsion of oil-water).
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Cookie,W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS,Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V,62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Trailer,www.yuyancable.com].
Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocks,Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose]. For instance,Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lockshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine,Strong Ring Neodymium Magnet,Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing[ISO18000 Passive UHF RFID Tag Label for Asset Tracking,Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.ISO18000 Passive UHF RFID Tag Label for Asset Tracking.201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheetshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
| Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|
| C3H3O2Na | 100 | 10.2 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25 | 75 | 8.5 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50 | 50 | 6.1 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 3.3 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.4 |
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| Polymer | Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|---|
| PDADMAC | C8H16NCl | 100 | 6.2 |
| ECH/DMA | C5H12ONCl | 100 | 7.3 |
| CPAM | C8H16O2NCl | 100 | 5.2 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5 | 50 | 3.8 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 2.5 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.2 |
| Chitosan | C6H11O4N.HCl | 100 | 5.2 |
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill,Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud,4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Posture Corrector Sport,Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film].
Furthermore,SKF Koyo Timken Bearing M249736/10CD 8578/8520CD Ee127095/127136CD Ee127095/127137D Ee127095/127139d Ee170950/171451CD Taper Roller Bearing. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card,Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets,Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Aluminium Edge Tile Trim Floor Trim Transition Profile with Plastic for Decoration,High Quality Promotional Custom Alternate Black and White Blocks ID Badge Holder Polyester Lanyard].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee,22kw AC Charger with Type 2 Interface].Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.PPM-T293A Long Range Wifi Transmitter for Drilling and Some Offshore Platformsshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
| Industries | Coagulant | Dosing | Performance | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pulp and paper | Poly-aluminum-silicate-chloride | 40 mg/l | 93.13% COD 91.12% turbidity | [Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising] |
| Textile industry | PAC | 25 mg/l | 90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity | [China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price] |
| Dye wastewater | Polyferric chlorides (PFCs) | 30 mg/l | 55% reduction | [1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject] |
| Vegetable tannery wastewater | PACl (poly aluminum chloride) | 60 mg/l | 45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity | [Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm] |
| Palm oil effluent | PAC | 0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l | 99% SOG | [4 Layers Large Plastic Blow Molding Machine/Blowing Moulding Machiery] |
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes].
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
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