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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen.Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [ SMD LED Soldering Machine,Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [60tph (QLB-60) Mobile Hot Mix Asphalt Plant,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor], sedimentation or flotation [Aluminum Alloy Sheet Cladding Materials for Brazing Application,High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Bright Color Plastic Shoelace Aglets,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion]Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321)[Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail,Pu Wheel Roller Skate Shoes,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button[Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),Wholesale Camouflage Print Curved Hem Women T Shirts]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler]. However,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Aluminum Pipe 3003,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,Aluminium Facade]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels,Oxidized Polyethylene Wax Wikipedia]. Also,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine],72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine[Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t,Claw Chain Diamond Crown And Tiara]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation,Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile].Ceramic Animal Teapot Setshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts, P60,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light].3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Liquid Dispenser]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank,Telescopic Camera Jib Crane]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,4axis Wood Cnc Router]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inEbay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
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Coagulant qualityTemperature50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07),Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Snow Globe,High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,4kg Fly Wheel Bike,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker].a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold),Food Waste Granules Making Organic Fertilizer Machine, Granulator Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Aluminum Foil Container Production Line for Food Cooking,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate]. Furthermore,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)]. In a typical flotation process (Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process,Bathroom Basin Mixer].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building],Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China].Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Household Family Medical Emergency Electronic Digital Thermometer,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt[Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price–Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Luxury Camping Tent For Sale]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

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Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Case Erectors And Sealers,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks]. In practice (High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,CNC Aluminum Laser Milling Machinery]. In flotation principle,Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Best Price 21g 23G 26g 28g 30g 32g 33G Retractable Blood Safety Lancet,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper]. With an increase in pH,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt].Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,chokes inductors 3.5x9]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet]. Thus,Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,js-minglian.com,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould]. In contrast, like-ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun[FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart].Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Travel Duffel Bag, Foldable Weekender Bag with Shoes Compartment (grey)(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Tanfon Solar Power System with Optimum Usage to Extend Battery Life,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Guangli Manufacturer High Quality Cheap Rear Exhaust Car Spray Paint Booth with Movable Infrared Light Heating,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [ Great for Vintage,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,etonsmtauto.com].Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block, a high requirement on pH,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine;5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery ChargerOften used with alum; high cost;Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,FSTN Display Monochrome LCD Module for Positive Type,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine].Foldable Mat for Kids Play Matshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [High Tech Healthcare Product Hydrogen Rich Water Bottle Generator for Home Use]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes.5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC(polyelectrolytes)Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine-ionic polymers [1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag].2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [5 Inch 7 Segment Display,FC Fiber Optics Adapter]. These include (1)DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [m.nbjiafei.com,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Lemon Essence Flavor Concentrate in Pg Vg Base Chinese E Liquid Factory with Drop Shipping Services,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,Pet Strap Making Machine Tape Plastic Extrusion].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine]. For instance,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Menshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,Factory Price APC Fiber Optic FTTH Sc Fast Connector,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link[1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm.Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealingshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface)[Recycle Finger Joint Core Film Faced Shuttering Plywood].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord.Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor[High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light.Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jarsoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker. CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Partsshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Aluminum Household Step Ladder.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [750ml Bordeaux Glass Wine Liquor Bottle,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens].

Furthermore,Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh,Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Fiber Laser Cutting Machine 6020,99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business].CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Toilet Angle Valve Brass Angle Valveshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[panelspvc]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,THK Bearing SSR20wxss, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Fruit Juice Production Line,Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,One Wheel Hovershoes, Hoverboard and Electric Skatboard. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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