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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part],Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [New Spinning Rod Bag Reel Bag Fishing Bag,Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration].Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Kids Indoor Soft Playground,Plastic PVC (vacuum calibration cooling tank haul off cutter stacker) Pipe Extruding Machine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector,2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi[Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve,Carburetor Adjusting Tool Kit Screwdriver Chainsaw for Poulan Husqvarna Zama Walbro) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCustom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook–ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness,Isoprene Reclaimed Rubber High Quality Supplier]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light,Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale].Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321).
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621,Arch Sheet Making Machine].Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes, a high requirement on pH,50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCommercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror,Vital Injector]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale,High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel].Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40shows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Vlv22 Cable Cord and Wire]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils.Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery(polyelectrolytes)Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed-ionic polymers [Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)].1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement.
Name
Formula
Typical properties
Uses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl
PAC 23
* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose[Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding.St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [ New Zealand,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine,Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Function Of Extruder Machines,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30,New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag].5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.HPMC Mhpc Hydroxypropyl Methyl Cellulose Ether for Tile Adhesive Sshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation,Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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