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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e)@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace]. In a typical flotation process (Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml)), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Modular Prefab Hire Cabins,Tile Look Laminate Flooring].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit],Neoprene Elbow Support, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL].Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Custom Sportswear Womens Factory OEM/ODM Products, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole,Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62)[Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCe RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W–High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material,Custom Steel Punch Stamps]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [E-Bike/E-Scooter Intelligent DC Rapid Charging Station,Portable Laser Engraver 20W]. With an increase in pH,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine,50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet].Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Affordable Price 7005]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Protective Roof Rubber Blocks.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook,Indoor Sports Surfaces Supplier & Factory].Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box, a high requirement on pH,Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inAuto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1)]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant.
Dispersions: In this case,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)[High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House,Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Product Design and Molding.Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone.Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl[Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet.Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirroroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil.Vital Injectorshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.
Polymer
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
PDADMAC
C8H16NCl
100
6.2
ECH/DMA
C5H12ONCl
100
7.3
CPAM
C8H16O2NCl
100
5.2
CPAM
(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5
50
3.8
CPAM
(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
2.5
CPAM
(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.2
Chitosan
C6H11O4N.HCl
100
5.2
Table 5.
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Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102,Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale,High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Original Hiwin Linear Guideway Mgn7c Mgn7h,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking,Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block].Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Modern Ornament Light Poleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,High Quality Restaurant Booth Seating From Factory Sale, Booth Seating for Restaurant, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve,2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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