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33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol
Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556
Downloaded: 1551
Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping.Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof Materials. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117). The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.
The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [www.hhomedecor.com,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount], sedimentation or flotation [www.sunnydiamondtools.com,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [ Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings,High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Business Travel Luggage Suppliers for Sale,Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor,100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate]Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)[Custom Tempered Glass Top,Eel19 Transformer,Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)[New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings].
In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,Lab Grown Polished Diamond Gemstones for Jewelry]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll]. However,Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058),PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes,Pocket Knife Shaing System]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber,Stainless Steel Industrial Pressure Gauge]. Also,Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance,Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile],High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher[Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Bathroom Vanity Bathroom Design]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric,10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System, 304].
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088].CNC 3-Axis & 4-Axis Milling Machining Center with Fanuc Systemshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes,Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration].China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [MDF Wood Acrylic CO2 Laser CNC Cutting Machine]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].
Also,Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale,Anti-Theft Mini Best Security Am Hard Tag]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inHot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence.
| Coagulant characteristics | MOW characteristics | Physical characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Coagulant type | Water quality | Flotation/settling time |
| Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face | Suspended solids | Mixing intensity |
| Coagulant quality | Temperature | Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller |
| Coagulant lifespan | pH | Chemical stability during storage |
| Proper solution makeup and dilution | Alkalinity | |
| Ionic constituents |
Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale].
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace,Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [ESD Anti-Slip Anti-Static PVC Dotted Glove Lint Free,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine,Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men,Borage Oil For Acne,ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality].Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.
For instance (Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine),Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Mounted Hose Reel Pipe Hook,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall]. Furthermore,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA]. In a typical flotation process (Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale,Granite and Marble].
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration],CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone,Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home].Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [www.jspseal.com,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch,Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose[Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding,Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inFashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress–Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack,Digital Audio Processor]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inNiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element.Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger,Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.
Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Hot Sale Faux PU Garment Leather for Jacket- Sola,2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display,Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant]. In practice (Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#)), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger,Inflatable Decorations Advertising Inflatable Snow Globe with Bouncy Air Mattress]. In flotation principle,Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss].
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting,Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Customized Service Black Anodized Aluminum Precision Parts CNC Machining Parts,Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag]. With an increase in pH,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel,PS Foam Plate Making Machine].3t 5m Good Design Chain Block.
Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light,m.mjbagging.com]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D, Granulator Machine]. Thus,High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump.
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture,Mini Boat Rocker Switch Red Spst on off Push Button 3A6a 250V 15X10X17 mm,China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes]. In contrast, like-Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck[Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch,Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant].Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment.
Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [918 Loaders,50*100,Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205),Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work,Galaxy 7 Cases,Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals].
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad,Polypropylene Fibre for Commercial Slabs].Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate, a high requirement on pH,Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inNew Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping,100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
| Name | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O | Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Custom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range |
| Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 | Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame;Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive | Often used with alum; high cost;Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine |
| Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15 | In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum | Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives |
| Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 | Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity |
| Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O | Effective between pH 4 and 11 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum |
| Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O | Not as pH sensitive as lime | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity |
| Lime Ca(OH)2 | Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent | pH-dependent;Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler; overdose can result in poor effluent quality |
Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case,8 Oz Plastic Jars,Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter].
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Color Coated Steel Coil,700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle].High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCoshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Small Flexible 1.5 Ton Diesel Forklift with Low Price]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer.PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector(polyelectrolytes)Enhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2-ionic polymers [Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox,Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine].NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element,IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump,Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment.
| Name | Formula | Typical properties | Uses |
|---|---|---|---|
| Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl | PAC 23 | * 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process |
| MEGAPAC 23 | |||
| ALCHLOR AC | * SG 1.33 | ||
| * 83–84% basicity | |||
| PROFLOC A23 | * 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l | ||
| Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3 | PAC-10 LB | * 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car GPS Navigation 1 DIN |
| MEGAPAC 10 | |||
| * SG 1.18 | |||
| * 50% basicity | |||
| * 10.5% w/w Cl | |||
| * 245 g/l | |||
| Polyaluminium silicosulphate Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58 | PASS® | * 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w Al | Forms flocs easily |
| * SG 1.34 | |||
| * 54% basicity | |||
| Polyferric sulfate Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7 | PFS® | * 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3 | Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater |
| * SG 1.54 | |||
| * 10% basicity | |||
| * 673 g/l |
Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [SKF Koyo Timken Bearing M249736/10CD 8578/8520CD Ee127095/127136CD Ee127095/127137D Ee127095/127139d Ee170950/171451CD Taper Roller Bearing,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles].
There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Double Color Plastic Parts for Electric Tool Handles Shell Plastic Injection Mold,China Bucket Elevator Forged Steel Shafts 42CrMo Steel Axis Price]. These include (1)High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Weichai Engine R6105izld Green 40kw Canopy Type Diesel Generator Set,160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold,Long Working Time Grinder with Pin Rod for Brittle]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [hanyingcultural.com,High Precision PVC/ EVA Injection Mould for Sandals & Shoe,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler].
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823,New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws.
Dispersions: In this case,Electronic Stainless Steel Plate Temperature & Humidity Testing Chamber (HD-150T). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30(emulsion of oil-water).
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Vintage Pu Dining Chair,Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type)]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA,Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter,High Quality FDA 250ml 300ml 350ml 380ml 400ml 500ml 800ml Voss Style Juice Water Glass Bottle with Cap Wholesale].
Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet ,Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element]. For instance,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switchshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [High Stability Series High Power Inductor,Corrugated Cardboard Production Line Reel Stands,Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer, 10kv 11kv Power Distribution Transformer Power Transformer[Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series,Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction.China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tiresshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
| Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|
| C3H3O2Na | 100 | 10.2 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25 | 75 | 8.5 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50 | 50 | 6.1 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 3.3 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.4 |
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| Polymer | Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|---|
| PDADMAC | C8H16NCl | 100 | 6.2 |
| ECH/DMA | C5H12ONCl | 100 | 7.3 |
| CPAM | C8H16O2NCl | 100 | 5.2 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5 | 50 | 3.8 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 2.5 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.2 |
| Chitosan | C6H11O4N.HCl | 100 | 5.2 |
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [ Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing,LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface),Tungsten Carbide Rods with H6 Grinding Surface]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Home Use 500mg/Hr Ozone Generator for Vegetable Cleaning,20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste].
Furthermore,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves,5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G). Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Adjustable Paracord Shackle, Sugar].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube,Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover].6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Electric Pad Printing Machine T-Shirt Ball Pen Lightshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
| Industries | Coagulant | Dosing | Performance | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pulp and paper | Poly-aluminum-silicate-chloride | 40 mg/l | 93.13% COD 91.12% turbidity | [Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens] |
| Textile industry | PAC | 25 mg/l | 90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity | [Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver] |
| Dye wastewater | Polyferric chlorides (PFCs) | 30 mg/l | 55% reduction | [Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G)] |
| Vegetable tannery wastewater | PACl (poly aluminum chloride) | 60 mg/l | 45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity | [Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens] |
| Palm oil effluent | PAC | 0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l | 99% SOG | [zetarindustry.com] |
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Finishing Aluminium Alloy Profile, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain,Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb].
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
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