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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556
Downloaded: 1551
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The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Best Table Calendar Design,10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [ 304,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088,Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine], sedimentation or flotation [Hotel Card,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Lift Hydraulic Cylinder,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale]Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print[Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence,316 Ss Bolt With Wing Nut Manufacturers Cheap Price,Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film[Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace].
In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Biogas Almacenamiento]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine]. However,John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men,ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price,Multi-Function Super Sodium Humate]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality,Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall,Industrial Grade 3g Wireless Router]. Also,201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA,Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil,Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale],3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing[2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop,PVC Butterfly Valves for DIN ANSI JIS Standard (Level and Gear type)]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration,Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone,Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home].
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale].Best Selling Garden Decor Artificial Grass Synthetic Lawnshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack,NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element].Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Best Anal Toys For Men]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].
Also,DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger,Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display,Laboratory Oven For Dentures]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inCasting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant.
| Coagulant characteristics | MOW characteristics | Physical characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Coagulant type | Water quality | Flotation/settling time |
| En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm | Suspended solids | Mixing intensity |
| Coagulant quality | Temperature | Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste |
| Coagulant lifespan | pH | Chemical stability during storage |
| Proper solution makeup and dilution | Alkalinity | |
| Ionic constituents |
Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#)].
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger,Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface); and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Medical Equipment with Aluminum Alloy CNC Machining Parts Die Casting,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss,Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting,Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic,Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag,Bicycle Nylon Pedal,Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel,PS Foam Plate Making Machine,Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light].LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.
For instance (Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button),Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [3D Bottle Cap with Bottle Opener Key Ring Ym1138,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D]. Furthermore,LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [ Granulator Machine]. In a typical flotation process (Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes,Steel Plate Rolling Machine].
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant],Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser), whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm,50*100].Aluminum Household Step Ladder, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Custom Paper Clip Different Shapes Paper Clips Different Sizes Animal Paper Clip,Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.THK Bearing SSR20wxss,2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop[Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205)]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (One Wheel Hovershoes, Hoverboard and Electric Skatboard,Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inBlue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work–China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts,5 Years Warranty IP65 UFO LED High Bay Light 80W]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
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Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.
Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Hospital Portable Syringe Pump with Multichannel (THR-SP180C),Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping,100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press]. In practice (Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter,Security Zinc Alloy Safe Cabinet Cam Lock (18*14)]. In flotation principle,Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Color Coated Steel Coil,700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle].
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo,Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [m.obachem.com,Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine]. With an increase in pH,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [SKF Koyo Timken Bearing M249736/10CD 8578/8520CD Ee127095/127136CD Ee127095/127137D Ee127095/127139d Ee170950/171451CD Taper Roller Bearing,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles].304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate.
Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [China Bucket Elevator Forged Steel Shafts 42CrMo Steel Axis Price,Best Mask For Welding]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Weichai Engine R6105izld Green 40kw Canopy Type Diesel Generator Set,160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold,Long Working Time Grinder with Pin Rod for Brittle]. Thus,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border.
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [High Precision PVC/ EVA Injection Mould for Sandals & Shoe,Heavy Duty Velcro Tape,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler]. In contrast, like-Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088[Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823,New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080].Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption.
Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Polypropylene Needle Punched Geotextile for Construction(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Paper Straw Biodegradable Striped Paper Straw for Drink, Bar Accessories, Wedding, Party(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Pet Food Packing and Weighing Machine,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type),High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter,Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet ,Natural Incense Sticks,Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch,High Stability Series High Power Inductor].
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater,Xiandai Brand Backhoe Loader with Breaker and Aguer (XD850)].Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700, a high requirement on pH,Colored Hex Head Self Drilling Metal Screw with Color Rubber Washer. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality,China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
| Name | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O | Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range |
| Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 | China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor;FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer | Often used with alum; high cost;Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal |
| Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15 | In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum | Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives |
| Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 | Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity |
| Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O | Effective between pH 4 and 11 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum |
| Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O | Not as pH sensitive as lime | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity |
| Lime Ca(OH)2 | Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent | pH-dependent;High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry; overdose can result in poor effluent quality |
Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale,Pu Shoulder Bag,High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine].
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway,Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display].4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectorsshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [sunybiz]. There are various types of organic coagulants,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV, Super Bass Music TV.All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine(polyelectrolytes)Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid-ionic polymers [ Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing,LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface)].New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine,Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag,High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine.
| Name | Formula | Typical properties | Uses |
|---|---|---|---|
| Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl | PAC 23 | * 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml |
| MEGAPAC 23 | |||
| ALCHLOR AC | * SG 1.33 | ||
| * 83–84% basicity | |||
| PROFLOC A23 | * 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l | ||
| Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3 | PAC-10 LB | * 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine |
| MEGAPAC 10 | |||
| * SG 1.18 | |||
| * 50% basicity | |||
| * 10.5% w/w Cl | |||
| * 245 g/l | |||
| Polyaluminium silicosulphate Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58 | PASS® | * 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w Al | Forms flocs easily |
| * SG 1.34 | |||
| * 54% basicity | |||
| Polyferric sulfate Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7 | PFS® | * 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3 | Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater |
| * SG 1.54 | |||
| * 10% basicity | |||
| * 673 g/l |
Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Tungsten Carbide Rods with H6 Grinding Surface,20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste].
There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Diode Laser Hair Removal In Dubai,Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves]. These include (1)Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse, Sugar]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Newly Designed for Aluminum Trolley Luggage Spinner Travel Suitcase,Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing,Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube].
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover,Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe.
Dispersions: In this case,Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights(emulsion of oil-water).
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [m.alitruck.com,Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver,Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G)]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens,Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain,Steel Water Pipe Price].
Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb,Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine]. For instance,Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Priceshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type,122X32 128X128 Graphic FSTN Cog LCD Module with I2c Spi Interface,SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine[Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315,Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale.Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Boxshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Custom Printed Plastic Die Cut Handle Bag with Side Gusset(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
| Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|
| C3H3O2Na | 100 | 10.2 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25 | 75 | 8.5 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50 | 50 | 6.1 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 3.3 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.4 |
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| Polymer | Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|---|
| PDADMAC | C8H16NCl | 100 | 6.2 |
| ECH/DMA | C5H12ONCl | 100 | 7.3 |
| CPAM | C8H16O2NCl | 100 | 5.2 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5 | 50 | 3.8 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 2.5 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.2 |
| Chitosan | C6H11O4N.HCl | 100 | 5.2 |
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [ BOPP,Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16),Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [cnbyapparel.com,Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump].
Furthermore,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Floppy Hat,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended,Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric].5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Free Application Test High Frequency Induction Forging Heater Coil Heatershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
| Industries | Coagulant | Dosing | Performance | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pulp and paper | Poly-aluminum-silicate-chloride | 40 mg/l | 93.13% COD 91.12% turbidity | [Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192)] |
| Textile industry | PAC | 25 mg/l | 90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity | [LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e] |
| Dye wastewater | Polyferric chlorides (PFCs) | 30 mg/l | 55% reduction | [All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen] |
| Vegetable tannery wastewater | PACl (poly aluminum chloride) | 60 mg/l | 45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity | [Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design] |
| Palm oil effluent | PAC | 0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l | 99% SOG | [PVD Color Coated Decorative Stainless Steel Elevator Door] |
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer,Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip].
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
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