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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping].8mm Stop Lockshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case,Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter,Color Coated Steel Coil].Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Turning Lathe Machine]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter]. In a typical flotation process (Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet ), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element,JM305 Best Sell Small Size Quartz Stone Single Bowl Sink].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High Stability Series High Power Inductor],OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater,Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series].Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Metal Precise Stamping Parts,Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70)[China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inHigh Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale–Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine,Carbon Scrims For Flooring]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover,Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens].PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent,5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption].Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch, a high requirement on pH,License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in BOPP. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16),Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor.
Dispersions: In this case,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration[High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip.Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Strokeshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen,Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC, Automatic Bolt]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [4GB 8GB 16GB 32GB 64GB Memory Card SD Card Mobile Phone,Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch),Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet].Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.High Quality Jinbo Carnival Dodgem Bumper Cars Rides for Saleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e),Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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