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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine.3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser,300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade,Fashion Wholesale Clothes Clothing Swim Beach Boxer Custom Sprots Running Gym Shorts]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Hot Sale Baby Stroller Pram From China Factory,Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape,Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable], sedimentation or flotation [Reception Desks Design,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory,Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [1/2 Car Repairing Pneumatic Impact Wrench,860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay, Black Excavator Track Rollers]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold]High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus[Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China,High Sensitivity Ground Metal Detector Searching for Treasure,High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes[Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,Stage Safety Wire Rope]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth,Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine]. However,Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack,High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House,www.ldkchina.com]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration,Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine,Yanmar Diesel Engine]. Also,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror,Vital Injector,Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne],The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof[Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102,S518 S503 Carbon Steel Shovel Head Without Handle for Sale]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale,High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring].m.qhmixdrymortarplant.comshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [ Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container,Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home].Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Basic Medical Unit for Modern Ozone Therapy (ZAMT-80A)]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking,Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block,Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door,Night Vision Zoom Scope]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inChina Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection MouldingSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureDisposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve,2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Die-Casting Aluminium Solar Street Lights 60W LED Power,24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit,Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock,Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer,Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat,Clear Vegetarian Capsule,Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier,Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set].Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V),Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Ceiling Tilting Tv Mount,Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm]. Furthermore,Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw]. In a typical flotation process (St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine,5mva 35kv Arc Furnace Transformer].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant],Travel Duffel Bag, Foldable Weekender Bag with Shoes Compartment (grey), whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women].Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [High Speed 3 Axis Vmc CNC Vertical Machine Center Vmc600L Home Bed Type 3 Axis CNC Milling Machine Price, New Zealand], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA[6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCustom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts–Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line,Pure Silver Metallic Yarn Lurex Hilo De Seda PARA Borlas Metallic Embroidery Thread]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape.Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Precision Metal Die Casting/High Precision Stainless Steel Castings,2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30]. In practice (New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332),fashion Display Cabinet for Ladies Retail Store]. In flotation principle,Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [36inch/50inch/Filter/Blackout/Black Vent/Breathable Wall/Light Trap for Ventilation Fan Used in Greenhouse Poultry Farms,Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case]. With an increase in pH,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h)].Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Sock Linking Machine Edge Locking Machine]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting]. Thus,Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord,Right Angle Industrial Planetary Gearbox,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. In contrast, like-John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet[Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils].3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Magnetron Sputtering Coating Machine,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Pet Thermal Lamination Film,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting,Price For Graphite Scrap].En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm, a high requirement on pH,Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive,60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface); most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord;Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or OutdoorOften used with alum; high cost;LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Toughened Railing Glass,China Supply Low Price Double Yogurt Ice Cream Machine Fry Round Pan,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox].Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wearshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Hejian Auto Clutch Disc Factory Supply Japanese Series Clutch]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser).Aluminum Household Step Ladder(polyelectrolytes)Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended-ionic polymers [Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable].Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom,High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine,CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.THK Bearing SSR20wxss
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber,Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Custom Luxury Rigid Cardboard Drawer Gift Box,Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets]. These include (1)One Wheel Hovershoes, Hoverboard and Electric Skatboard, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Outdoor Garden Patio Furniture Wicker Hanging Double Seater Rattan Swing Chair,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover,Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Mobile Phones LCD Screen for Huawei Mate 9 Lite Bll-L23 Honor 6X Gr5 2017 LCD Touch Screen/Display.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [corediamtool,Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor,New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table,Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100),China Kids Wall Urinal].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. For instance,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Compositesshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,Vertical Dpl/Opt Permanent Hair Removal Machine/Skin Rejuvenation with 2 Handles,Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality[European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate.High Quality Geared Side - in Agitatorshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088.Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor[Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption.35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformeroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Polypropylene Needle Punched Geotextile for Construction.High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hookshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Baby Towel With Hooded,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise].

Furthermore,Colored Hex Head Self Drilling Metal Screw with Color Rubber Washer. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70), Snack Food Packaging].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid].FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Wholesale HDG Chain Link Fence/Chain Link Mesh/Diamond Wire Meshshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Baby Girls Plain Cotton Dress Suppliers for Sale]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV, Super Bass Music TV. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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