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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Metal Studs And Tracks,Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk], sedimentation or flotation [Aluminum Sand Blasting Machine,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Te 1717692-6 2 Pin Female Auto Electrical Waterproof Spray Wiring Harness PBT GF20 Waterproof Connector,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine]GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet[Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube,tonyearchem,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll[Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant,ASTM A269 317 Seamless Coil Tubes Stainless Steel Pipe Manufacturer]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator, Snack Food Packaging]. However,Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Cnc Metal Laser Cut Manufacturers Cheap Price]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System,Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light,Microsoft Intel Desktop Computer Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. Also,275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market],Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles[Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper,Baton Supplier]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler].Excavator Partsshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill,Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader].Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Brass Forged Brass Fittings Manufacturer]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Injection Molded Part]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inCustomized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel ShoesSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Outdoor Cat Scratching Tree Cat Climbing Modern Luxury Large Cat Tree,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton,2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing,6 Pocket Folder Factory OEM/ODM Product,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making].13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters),Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Top Sale Waterjet Cutter Pump Parts 87K Intensifier,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W]. Furthermore,ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount]. In a typical flotation process (ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W,Cross Flat Head Self Tapping Screw with Blue Zinc Plated].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing],Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor,100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light].Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Inox Cold Rolled 201 304 No. 8 8K Mirror Super Mirror Finish Stainless Steel Sheet /Plate for Decoration,304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes[Custom Tempered Glass Top]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate,Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inSquare Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928–Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings,Gcc Plant Ball Mill and Air Classifier Production Line]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inAir Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW).Bipolar Hall Sensor, Ah3041, Speed Sensor, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Digital Waterfall,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058),PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes]. In practice (Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,Movable Full Color Taxi Roof LED Sign of Outdoor P5]. In flotation principle,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance,Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Piling Machinery,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile]. With an increase in pH,Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric].LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System,Customized New Arrival 100% Bamboo Fiber Baby Hat (H009)]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [ 304,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088,Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine]. Thus,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine,340x30x17mm Tempered Boiler Sight Glass Factory OEM/ODM Products,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes]. In contrast, like-Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine[Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD].50*100, 50*200mm 3D Security Welded Wire Mesh Fence Panel.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Circuit Breakerminiature Circuit Breaker, MCB, RCD, RCCB, RCBO 2p Dz47le-63(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Doritos Chips Production Line Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh,John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence,Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale,3d Printer Linear Stepper Motor,Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags,4 Camera Car].Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade, a high requirement on pH,4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inBakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men,ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street;Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door LocksOften used with alum; high cost;Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine,OEM Office/Home Portable HEPA Air Purifier with Negative Ion,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall].Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDAshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Hi-Lift Jacks]. There are various types of organic coagulants,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle.Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing(polyelectrolytes)Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women-ionic polymers [Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil,Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale].Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery,Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine,Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop,Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Petroleum Coke Factory,Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone]. These include (1)Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale,Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [HPMC Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose Additives,Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element,Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant, Hzs25 Small Concrete Batching Plant. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet -effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [3*5ft Trump Flag,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger,Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display,Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant,Dogs Food Bags].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#),Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger]. For instance,Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Claddingshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss,Low Carbon Steel Driveway Bridge Floor Grating,Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth[Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic,Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book.Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnelshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth.Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China[PS Foam Plate Making Machine,Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel.Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Buttonoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70).Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652Dshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [ Granulator Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture,China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes,Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Led Flagpole Light,Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant].

Furthermore,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm,50*100,Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Abrasion Loss Teste,Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205)].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice].Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Desk Feet Hammockshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[HSS 3 Flutes 75 Degree Chamfer End Mill for Processing Conical Surface]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press,Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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