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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
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Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm]. In a typical flotation process (Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [35L Electric Car Mini Fridge,Paint Coating System Suppliers for Sale].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
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2.2.Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [www.acrubberfactory.com,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102,Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube[Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05)]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox,Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inEMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights–Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery,UV Laser Engraving Machine Laser Printer Laser Marking Machine for Metal/Plastic]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton
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* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
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* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Metal Fiber Laser Marking Machine,Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder,2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner,www.mutrade.com].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites[Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Stability Series High Power Inductor.2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cableshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#),Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger,ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch).
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Electronic Fr4 Rigid PCB,Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Room]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [ HD Baby Monitor for Baby,Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution].China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Good Quality OEM Stainless Steel Welding Electrodeshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Dust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer,Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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