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We are a community of more than 103,Transparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers.6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocks].Silent Night Sunrise Alarm Clockshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine,Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale].40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Seamless Tube]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee]. In a typical flotation process (22kw AC Charger with Type 2 Interface), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bags. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising,Customized Arc Shape Permanent Strong Neodymium Magnet].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Circular Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column[T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inTransparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1–Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [N95 Dust Cover Face Mask Machine,High Range Water Reducer Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer (PCE) Powder]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions
Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inSTPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate.High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Oil Gas Line Pipe,Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge,High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles,35L Electric Car Mini Fridge].Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008,Concrete Foam Equipmen Cement Brick Making Machine].Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration,Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Combination Shoe Display Rack; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps.
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag.
Dispersions: In this case,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62)[HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA,Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming.Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Boltshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner, Hollow Section].Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Stainless Steel Sliding Shower Enclosure with Frame and Double Handlesshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Protective Roof Rubber Blocks, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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