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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace]. In a typical flotation process (Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve,Supply PU Collars Decorations Dog Leather Cat Collar Pet Products].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [ Rice],PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China),Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter].220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China)(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Natural Yellow/Golden Sandstone for Flooring/Wall Cladding,Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners[Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity,4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inLight Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame–Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Gemstone Connectors Round Shape Gemstone Bezel Connectors,Body Slim Device]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room,Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Hydraulic Basement Garage Car Lift for Easy Parking,High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine]. With an increase in pH,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W].Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine,Instrumenation Block & Bleed Valve].Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting, a high requirement on pH,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inMolyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA),High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone.
Dispersions: In this case,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design[Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill,Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit.Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Springshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side].HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Super Hero Silicone Superman Ice Moldshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment,SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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