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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [m.hbgcdl-fasteners.com,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate], sedimentation or flotation [www.wanxuanglass.com,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [0.3m3 Digger Capacity 2.5t Front Mini Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China]05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G[China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic 0.45um PVDF Disc Membrane Filter,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves[20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Psa Oxygen Plant/Oxygen Gas Generator for Medical Uses]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court]. However,Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [ Booth Seating for Restaurant,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Hot Proof Foam Placemats]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,China 4a Zeolite Molecular Sieve Powder]. Also,OEM Service for Motorcycle Hoist in China, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device],Modular Prefab Hire Cabins[Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,4 Bearing Ball Heavy Duty 201 304 Stainless Steel Door Hinge for Truck]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516].OEM Stainless Steel Forged Rigging Forged Shackles From Forging/Forge Manufacturershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould].High Quality Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire for Protection Military Security Fence, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Animal Carcass Incinerator Hospital Garbage Incinerator]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Custom-Made Gas Spring Strut with Iron Head.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components,Peristaltic Pump High Flow Rate]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inShockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant FabricSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Men Acetate Optical Frames Eyeglass, Great for Vintage,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Acoustic Control Barrier,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee].Large Damping Compression Spring for Stage Spring with Black Helix, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood),Corrugated Carton Box Nc Cutting Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Plasma Pipe Cutting Machine,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm]. Furthermore,Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine]. In a typical flotation process (Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Magnetic Front-Service P2.5/P3 Indoor LED Display. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Luxury High Quality Shawl Collar Multi-Color Coral Fleece Bathrobe].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe],Tractor and Implements Disc Plough Harrow Mower Slasher 4 in 1 Front Loader Agricultural Equipments, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover,FC Fiber Optics Adapter].Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Sinicline Custom Rose Gold Foil Stamping Embossed Printed Grosgrain Ribbon,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Front Service Ability Ha2.5 640*1920mm Poster Screen for Store Advertising,Customization! Bdy380CD Horizontal Directional Drilling Machine[TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Plastic Bucket Injection Mould) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inBuilding Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing–Metal Stamping Manufacturing, Fastener Bending Stamping, Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food,Tool Stainless Steel Round Bar SUS440c 9cr18mo for Nozzle&Bearing]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Bolt. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inClosed Die Forging Cultivator Point.Shoebox Canopy Lamp 60W LED Light Evergy Saving 2835 Chips Corn Bulb, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Industrial Welding Robot,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate]. In practice (2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China,Health Fresh Plastic Tritan Fruit Water Bottle with Fruit Infuser]. In flotation principle,Aluminum Height Adjustable Cane-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Nichia UV LED 365nm 20W Curing Lamp,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood]. With an increase in pH,Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter,Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing].Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Car Speaker Wiring Harness Adapter to Connector Aftermarket Radio Fit Select Nissan 2011 2012 Model 2013-2017 Murano]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade,Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts]. Thus,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay,Equipment Trolley Cart,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material]. In contrast, like-Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet[Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation].Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Inline Post Active Carbon Filter for Household RO Wate Purifier,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh,Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,Double Head Cutting For Aluminium Window Frame,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,Antistatic Fabrics Suppliers for Sale].Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42, a high requirement on pH,Flexible Printed Circuit Board PCB Flexible Board. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inLadies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30;Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer MachineOften used with alum; high cost;FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Dust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Fruit Juice Production Line,www.chncitcnc.com,Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment].Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precisionshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Deutz Diesel Engine Spare Parts Motor Parts-Cover 0211 2620]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger.Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags(polyelectrolytes)Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor-ionic polymers [The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security,Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal].Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.RS-380 High Power DC Brushed Motor Cordless Screwdriver
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Tec-Sieve Heavy-Duty Expanded Metal Catwalk Grating,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug]. These include (1)High Sensitivity Archway Metal Detector (AT-IIID) Metal Detector, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Square Tube Pittsburgh Forming Machine High Quality Supplier,CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332)(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Hotel Baby Chairs,100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping,UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna,618sh Cof Bonding Machine for LCD TV Flex Cable Repair Bonding Machine Price].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift,Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine]. For instance,Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfectorshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light,m.jspseal.com,High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture[Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h). This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System.3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toysshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting.Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set[Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage, Injection Mould Maker in China]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05).High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Coveroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags.Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machineshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products,Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5),High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine].

Furthermore,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262),Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [PTFE Hose,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace].Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Top Airflow Refillable Cbd Vaporizer Ceramic Cartridgeshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml)]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Modular Prefab Hire Cabins]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[m.ycwelding.com]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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