Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W-reviewed chapter
Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line
Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556
Downloaded: 1551
6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine.Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621,Finishing Aluminium Alloy Profile, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324),Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.
The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [PVC Shrink Sleeve Label for Drinking Water Bottle,Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Food Grade Sapp /Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate/Sapp 96%,OEM Investment Casting for Pump Part]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit,2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision,HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck], sedimentation or flotation [Cheap Prefabricated Pre Engineering Steel Structure Chicken Farm Poultry House,Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Good Quality 600mm 9W Energy Saving Aluminum 160lm/W LED Tube Light]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator,Durable Stage Lifting Tools High Quality PA Series Mini Electric Wire Rope Hoist 100kgs to 1000kgs with Trolley]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [m.usbcmaster.com,Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chiller,Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Dongfeng 10000L Sewer Jetting Truck Industrial Sewer Jetting Truck]Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear[Custom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men,corediamtool.com,Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System[High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo].
In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Stainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube,Unique Black Stone Necklace Pendant Custom]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA,Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment]. However,Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Bolt,Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws,Stainless Steel Kitchen Furniture - Storage Cabinet with Sliding Doors]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Large Damping Compression Spring for Stage Spring with Black Helix,Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade,High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price,Jungle Airsoft Sports Suit Wargame Paintball Army Military Uniform (SYSG-2011)]. Also,Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector,Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section,Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain],High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier[Android Video Interface Car GPS Navigation System for 2014-2018 Year Mercedes-Benz C-Class A205,Disposable Wristbands Manufacturers Cheap Price]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mould,Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump,Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site].
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine].Promotion Waist Support Neoprene Lumbar Back Brace Elastic Waistshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner, Hollow Section,Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear].Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [RGB LED Tube DMX Butterfly Light Follow Spot Matrix Blinder]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].
Also,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valve,Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon,EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product,High Pressure Waterjet Cutting Machine for Marble/Granite/Glass]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFactory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler.
| Coagulant characteristics | MOW characteristics | Physical characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Coagulant type | Water quality | Flotation/settling time |
| 8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men | Suspended solids | Mixing intensity |
| Coagulant quality | Temperature | Custom Tempered Glass Top, Silk-Screen Printing Glass Dining Table Top |
| Coagulant lifespan | pH | Chemical stability during storage |
| Proper solution makeup and dilution | Alkalinity | |
| Ionic constituents |
Factors that affect the chemical purification process [2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable].
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Axial Leaded Power Ferrite Bead Inductor,8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant,China Suppliers Zhong Shan Cheap Wholesale Outdoor Waterproof LED Flood Street Light 50watts,Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine,New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#),Cold Rolled Stainless Steel Sheet (430) for Building Decoration,Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger,ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange,Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery].AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.
For instance (Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic),160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Adults Nylon/Pvc Rain Poncho,Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle]. Furthermore,LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer]. In a typical flotation process (Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Room,Ball Shaped Whiskey Stone].
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ HD Baby Monitor for Baby]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution],Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088,Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm Tractor].Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#)(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Belt Sanding Machine,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM),Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food[Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inDust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer–12V Car Tail Light for Ranger(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown,Fancy All in One Data Charging Magnetico Durable Smart Phone Magnet Nylon Braided Multi Micro USB C for iPhone LED Fast Charging Magnetic USB Cable 3 in 1]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inGlycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer.Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale,Industrial Alumina Ceramic Insulating Sleeve,2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.
Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Electricity Circular Tension Spring,14-Inch Vacuum-Brazed Diamond Saw Blades for Metal and Iron,Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder]. In practice (Igeelee HS-05wf 0.5-6.0mm2 Crimping Tools for Wire End Sleeves High Quality Multi-Function Crimping Pliers Tube Crimping Pliers), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Rectangle 100 Ml Perfume Glass Bottle with Leather Decoration,China Motor Concrete Pump]. In flotation principle,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer,PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector].
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System,Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047)]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Yeast Packing Machine,Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam]. With an increase in pH,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid].Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children.
Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color,Hot Sell Electro Hydraulic Synchronous CNC Press Brake Kcn-12540]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Postbox,Container House as Kinder Garden,Brand New Hbt80 Stationary Concrete Pump Trailer Pump for Sale]. Thus,Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens.
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005),Ethylene Base PVC Resin/PVC Resin K67,High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus]. In contrast, like-High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage[12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen,3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser].Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102.
Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Promotion Outdoor Canopy Gazebo Steel Folding Tent,High Sensitivity Archway Metal Detector (AT-IIID) Metal Detector,China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Powerful Output High Efficient Car Power Inverter 600W,275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle,Protective Cap,High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Sleeveless OEM Cotton Breathable Boys Printed T Shirt,Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches].
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [ 420,2018 Amusement Park Children Outdoor Playground Equipment for School (HS806001)].Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return, a high requirement on pH,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inStainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
| Name | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O | Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range |
| Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 | Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box;Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India | Often used with alum; high cost;Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe |
| Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15 | In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum | Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives |
| Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 | Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity |
| Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O | Effective between pH 4 and 11 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum |
| Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O | Not as pH sensitive as lime | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity |
| Lime Ca(OH)2 | Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent | pH-dependent;Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross; overdose can result in poor effluent quality |
Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Rosen 4kw off Grid Solar Energy Systems with Battery Bank,Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon,Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems].
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Full Tested LCD Screen Replacement for iPhone 6s Plus,100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor].High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Alumina Carrier]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449.Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry(polyelectrolytes)Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses-ionic polymers [DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw,6189-0533 2 Pin Female Waterproof Wiring Harness Assembly Terminals Automotive Connector].Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet.
| Name | Formula | Typical properties | Uses |
|---|---|---|---|
| Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl | PAC 23 | * 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device |
| MEGAPAC 23 | |||
| ALCHLOR AC | * SG 1.33 | ||
| * 83–84% basicity | |||
| PROFLOC A23 | * 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l | ||
| Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3 | PAC-10 LB | * 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking |
| MEGAPAC 10 | |||
| * SG 1.18 | |||
| * 50% basicity | |||
| * 10.5% w/w Cl | |||
| * 245 g/l | |||
| Polyaluminium silicosulphate Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58 | PASS® | * 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w Al | Forms flocs easily |
| * SG 1.34 | |||
| * 54% basicity | |||
| Polyferric sulfate Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7 | PFS® | * 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3 | Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater |
| * SG 1.54 | |||
| * 10% basicity | |||
| * 673 g/l |
Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [36V/48V 10ah Lithium Battery 250W/500W Fat Tyre Folding Portable,IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump].
There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [OEM Anodizing Aluminum Parts Custom Service in Precision CNC Machining,Car Accessories Car Decoration Universal Purple Down Cotton Thick Warm Plush Auto Car Seat Cover]. These include (1)ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Automatic Soap Bag in Box Packing Machine,New Pop Design Aluminum Clip in Ceiling for Interior Decorative,Hot Sales Popular Carton Custom Softcover Book&Printing Service]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Coated Waterproof Tarp Fabric Sheet Cover PP/PE Tarpaulin,Construction Melamine Glue Spcification Oriented Strand Board Smartly 1220X2440mm,Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button].
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [SLS 3D Printing ABS Nylon Prototyping Service Machining 3D,Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication.
Dispersions: In this case,W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer(emulsion of oil-water).
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [6 Inch Diesel Water Pump Supplier & Manufacturer,Tractor Haul off Unit/Pipe Puller,Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm,Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox,China Stainless Steel Metal Power Distribution Switch Box - China Distribution Box].
Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning]. For instance,50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bagsshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Shoebox Canopy Lamp 60W LED Light Evergy Saving 2835 Chips Corn Bulb,Boys Standing Light Shade,Carburetor Adjusting Tool Kit Screwdriver Chainsaw for Poulan Husqvarna Zama Walbro].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site[C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw,We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff.Updated Unilin Click Waterproof E0 4mm Spc Vinyl Flooring China Manufacturershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
| Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|
| C3H3O2Na | 100 | 10.2 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25 | 75 | 8.5 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50 | 50 | 6.1 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 3.3 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.4 |
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| Polymer | Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|---|
| PDADMAC | C8H16NCl | 100 | 6.2 |
| ECH/DMA | C5H12ONCl | 100 | 7.3 |
| CPAM | C8H16O2NCl | 100 | 5.2 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5 | 50 | 3.8 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 2.5 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.2 |
| Chitosan | C6H11O4N.HCl | 100 | 5.2 |
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Aluminum Height Adjustable Cane]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland,Comfortable Sportswear Colorful Sexy Cycling Bib Shorts for Women,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [High Accuracy Durable Electronic Low Air Pressure Test Equipment,Back Adhesive 72W Solar Flexible PV Laminate Panels (PVL-72)].
Furthermore,Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [100kn Glass Disc Suspension Insulator for High Voltage,Eco-Friendly Vegetable Oil Cast Iron Multi Frying Pan,Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Flange Hose,Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [1.8m Height Hot Dipped Galvanized Chain Link Fencing]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [3 Axis 400t/6000 CNC Press Brake with Delem Da52s 400 Tons CNC Press Brake,China Supplier Selling Cheap Coffee Beans Harvesting Machine Coffee Beans Picker].High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Building Stamping Embedded Parts with Welding Processshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
| Industries | Coagulant | Dosing | Performance | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pulp and paper | Poly-aluminum-silicate-chloride | 40 mg/l | 93.13% COD 91.12% turbidity | [Coffee Bean Packaging Plastic Bag] |
| Textile industry | PAC | 25 mg/l | 90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity | [Promotion Price RGB LED P7.62 Display Panel Full Color Video Displays] |
| Dye wastewater | Polyferric chlorides (PFCs) | 30 mg/l | 55% reduction | [Popular Cement Paver/Hollow Block Machine in India] |
| Vegetable tannery wastewater | PACl (poly aluminum chloride) | 60 mg/l | 45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity | [Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings] |
| Palm oil effluent | PAC | 0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l | 99% SOG | [Military Night Vision Goggles] |
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Colored Hex Head Self Drilling Metal Screw with Color Rubber Washer,Hot Sales Beauty Products Cosmetics Make up Face Blush Brush Makeup Brush].
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
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