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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
For instance (Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor),Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Nut And Bolt Supplier & Factory,Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation]. Furthermore,Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton.
Figure 3.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended]. In a typical flotation process (Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192),Motor Rotor].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen],Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design,Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer].43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Wholesale Custom Fashion Colorful Happy Cotton Mens Dress Socks,Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites[Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design,High Stability Series High Power Inductor) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inChina Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck–Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,12mm Ball Screw]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis, 1300mm].17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch).
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal,Hospital Medical Infusion Pump Price].Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home, a high requirement on pH,PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inFerrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e). Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price,Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Flaker, Granular, Powder, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China.
Dispersions: In this case,1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter[100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom,Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35).Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing, T2/Tp2,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Organza Wine Bottle Gift Bags Wholesale,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants,Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color].TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Sinter Powder Metal Filter Supplier & Manufacturershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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