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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [30W DC Worm Gear Motor 12/24V Low Noise High Quality with Encoder for Intelligent Tech Products,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System], sedimentation or flotation [m.pulp-cleaner.com,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Cnc Metal Cutting Machines,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700[9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,Aluminium Plate For Building Decoration,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Colored Hex Head Self Drilling Metal Screw with Color Rubber Washer[Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,jb-hardware.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price]. However,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Factory Price Professional Xgma Xg932h 3 Tons Front End Loader]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Cmcarboxymethyl Cellulose]. Also,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals],FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer[Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Industrial Footwear Online Shopping]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper].0401 Kugelgewindeshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516].Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Diving Hose]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV, Super Bass Music TV. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,Big Size Thick Metal Hole Saw]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
All Sizes Wire Braiding MachineSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureNatural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Auto Wire Connector Terminals,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine,Wifi Door Bell Camera, Great for Vintage,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar].Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter),High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Greenhouse Mister Atomized Sprinkler (HT6342B),Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant]. Furthermore,Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass]. In a typical flotation process (6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Automatic Carton Erecting Machine].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine],Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper].Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Lace Control Hiphugger Braless Latex Body Shaper L81187,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine[304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inHeavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover–Custom Printed Plastic Die Cut Handle Bag with Side Gusset(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Glossy Prining Magnetic Closure Gift Packaging Box]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inClimb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant.Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Factory Sales of High-Quality Food Grade 99.5% Ferrous Sulfate Heptahydrate for Food Additives,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge]. In practice (Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,4CH 4K 8MP Ultra Full HD H. 265 Hybrid Ahd Tvi Cvi Network IP Camera DVR Security Digital Video Recording Camera]. In flotation principle,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Laser Cutting Machine For Pipe,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine]. With an increase in pH,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant].Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,Cable Raceway Narrow PVC Slotted Wiring Duct]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter,Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing]. Thus,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Aluminum Pancake Coil Tube for Refrigeration/Air Condition,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade]. In contrast, like-ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage[Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts].5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [High Quality Flexible PCB Circuit Board Assembly,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,Baby Pvc Waterproof Jacket High Quality Supplier,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,5000w Solar System For Home].Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector, a high requirement on pH,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inExplosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine;2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water HeaterOften used with alum; high cost;12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,m.yxmembrane.com,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette].Fruit Juice Production Lineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Door Drilling Machines]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series.Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle(polyelectrolytes)Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler-ionic polymers [Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder,0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering].Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool,Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement,Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment,Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Anti-Slip Rubber Floor Mat / Sheet Rolls in China,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security]. These include (1)PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal,High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [1 - Potassium Nitrate For Fireworks,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug,Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China)-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Good Quality Two in One Hydraulic Hose Cutting and Skiving Machine/High Pressure Hose Crimping Machine for Sale,CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold,F800 Cylinder Liner for Mud Pump].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine]. For instance,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stampingshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna,Vh 3.96mm Bar Connector PCB Connector Vhr-9n,Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners[Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine,Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board.LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Lightshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use.Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt[High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable,Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe.2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordesoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table.3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toysshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [ Injection Mould Maker in China,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [MIM Lock Part,Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable].

Furthermore,Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products,Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Cspower 12V 180ah Maintenance Free Gel Battery - Home Use Storage,High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262)]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing].Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.China Supplier Spare Parts for Water Jet Cutting; Waterjet Machineshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Indoor Supermarket Recessed Fixture Diffuser 30W-75W Trunking Pendant High Bay LED Linear Light]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml),Modular Prefab Hire Cabins].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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