IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [2030 Cnc Router,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook], sedimentation or flotation [High Pressure Bus and Truck Wash Machine,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [250ml Clear Glass Sauce Bottle with Metal Lid,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise,40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant]2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner[Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator,Strong Electric Locksmith Lock Pick Gun Tools for Bump Door Lock Opener, Snack Food Packaging]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat[Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,Low Volume Plastic Injection Molding]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System,Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve]. However,Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,m.solwaysolarlight.com]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon,Gb/T9711]. Also,Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [ Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012),Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler],Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa[Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Bespoke Aluminium Extrusions]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill,Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer].D75mm Strong Holding Power Fishing Magnets with Eyeboltshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery].Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Automatic Spot UV Coating Machine Hsssgj-620]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Coffee Bean Packaging Plastic Bag.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return,Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton,360gsm Branded Bathrobe Suppliers for Sale]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Factory Price Cellulose Ether HPMC, HEC, Hpc, CMCSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Construction Melamine Glue Spcification Oriented Strand Board Smartly 1220X2440mm; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Halogen Operating Lamp Medical Light Surgical Lamp (L734 Mobile type),Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making,Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W,16m Memory Mini Laser 2D Wireless Handheld Bluetooth Barcode Scanner (HM5-QM-B),Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W].Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance ( Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings),4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Hy 3/8 Hose X 3/8 NPT Female Swivel Thread Hydraulic Hose Fitting,High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing]. Furthermore,High Precision PVC/ EVA Injection Mould for Sandals & Shoe.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor]. In a typical flotation process (100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate,High Assembly/Precision Semi-Closed Linear Guide].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Custom Tempered Glass Top]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928],NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)].PS Foam Plate Making Machine, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [China Anti-Aging Hifu,Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts,China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mould[LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll–Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058),Automatic Grinding Wheat Corn Maize Flour Grits Meal Flour Milling Mill Machinery]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inPE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes.Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Competitive Price Comfortable Polyester Microfiber Pillow,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance]. In practice (Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile,Frozen Fish Roe]. In flotation principle,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System, 304]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Automatic Filter Tissue Paper Wrapping Thermo-Shrink Film Packing Mach.,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088]. With an increase in pH,Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Axe with Plastic Handle/TPR Handle Axes

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine].Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes,Ferrite Magnet Remanence]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag]. Thus,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh,China On Grid Solar Kit,John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale]. In contrast, like-Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Room. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh[Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence,Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale].Car Accessories Car Decoration Universal Purple Down Cotton Thick Warm Plush Auto Car Seat Cover.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [m.knitting-machines.com,Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine,Fast Cutting Diamond Blade for Marble,Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality,Best-Selling Cattle Panel].Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock, a high requirement on pH,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inQuality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall,Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver;Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen BagOften used with alum; high cost;8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil,m.glpurifier88.com,Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop,Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration].Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphoneshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Tqd Series Belt Caterpillar/Haul off for Cable Machine]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner.Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine(polyelectrolytes)Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09)-ionic polymers [Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale].High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood,Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample,Swbf-17b6s 6 Die 6 Blow Bolt Former Machine, Bolt Machine, Screw Machine, Heading Machine, Multi-Station Cold Heading Machine, Automatic Bolt.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Sales Popular Carton Custom Softcover Book&Printing Service
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle,Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Mens Snapback Trucker Hats Factory & Manufacturer,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack]. These include (1)Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element,Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Fs3139 Electric Cabinet Compression Flush Latch with Key Panel Lock,Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag,2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant,Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#)].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16)(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [m.gsbracefactory.com,Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger,Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss,Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting,Air Sleeve].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic,Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag]. For instance,Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnelshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [PS Foam Plate Making Machine,Led Edge Light Panel Light,Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product[Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205). Granulator Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555.China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal[Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture,China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket.Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watchoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller.Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plantshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [50*100,Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System,Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205)]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Ek Fk Fixed Series Support Unit for Supporting Ballscrew Support Unit with High Quality for The Module for Industrial Application,Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work].

Furthermore,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [m.gl-fiber.com,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping,100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press].Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Carbon Fiber Tubeshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Color Coated Steel Coil]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[www.hbzhongrunfelt.com]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo,Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117)(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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