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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry]. In a typical flotation process (Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Flaker, Granular, Powder, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid,Function Of Extruder Machines].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement],Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W].Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [OEM Precision Sheet Metal Control Box Custom Steel Cabinet Accessories,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List,Plastic Faucet and Mold Suppling, Injection Mould Maker in China[Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale–Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen,HPMC Mhpc Hydroxypropyl Methyl Cellulose Ether for Tile Adhesive S]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Best Camping Canvas Double Hammock,Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable]. With an increase in pH,Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type),China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal].Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35).
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Custom Ceramic Mug]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,Sem921 Motor Grader for Sale].Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners, a high requirement on pH,Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inDouble Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Back Adhesive 72W Solar Flexible PV Laminate Panels (PVL-72).
Dispersions: In this case,Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating[Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004),Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw.Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [China Security Devices,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather,It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing].Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.5D Full Surrounded Leather XPE Auto Parts Car Mat for FIAT 500shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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