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Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side,Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [A4 Paper Cutting Plotter Machine,PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt,China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10,Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment], sedimentation or flotation [Custom Iron on Merrow Woven Embroidery Patch for Jacket,SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Customized Aluminum Extrusion Profiles for Aluminum Windows and Doors Frame,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men]Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray[Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet,Machine Fishing Net,Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud[Malleable Fittings Union].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant ( Mexico), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress,Landscaping Turf Artificial Grass Lawn for Garden Decoration]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve]. However,High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use,Graphical Lcd Display Module]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette,Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe,m.pengtongfabric.com]. Also,W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price],25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market[110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Black Vinyl Coated Wire Mesh]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood, Graphitized Recarburizer].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Travel Duffel Bag].PP Clear Frosting Airless Pump Bottleshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449,High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate].2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [50ton Electric Slipway Winch for Ship Launching System]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20),20/22 Gauge Steel Stud Track Metal Frame Profiles for Gypsum Board Drywall Partition Division]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inChina Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuffSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders,Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [CE Approved Rice Husk Pellet Mill with Best Price,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use,Surgical Cover Gowns,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile].Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade),Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [agriculture fertilizer magnesium sulfate anhydrous factory,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange]. Furthermore,Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven]. In a typical flotation process (Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml,Window Blinds].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board],Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe].43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine

Polymer molecular weight (MW)High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Android Industrial Pc,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites[6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design,High Stability Series High Power Inductor) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inSuperior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet–Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil,304L Stainless Steel Butt Welding Eccentric Reducer]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Clear Black Empty 15ml 30ml 50ml 100ml Frosted White Square Glass Perfume Bottles. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inWooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video.4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print,Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs,Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Grey 0.43mm Fire Resistant Blanket Insulation Fireproof Fiberglass Cloth. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Hotel Modern Dining Table and Chair Set Restaurant High Back Dining Chair,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree]. In practice (Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,Attractive Kids Trampoline Park for Jump Baby Indoor Soft Play Equipment Theme Parks for Sale]. In flotation principle,Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Steel Structural Prefabricated,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask]. With an increase in pH,High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale,Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen].17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch).

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws,Pac 30% Light Yellow Power]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer,Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs,Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration]. Thus,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket,Chuangxinjia Em Marin 125khz Rfid Key Tag,High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher]. In contrast, like-Hydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30). This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends[8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I,Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional].China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Sublimaton Stainless Steel Thermos,Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord,7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Frequency Voting Machine,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter,Lowes Battery Jump Starter].Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home, a high requirement on pH,PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inQuality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		36V/48V 10ah Lithium Battery 250W/500W Fat Tyre Folding Portable;Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and RocksOften used with alum; high cost;High Quality Promotional Custom Alternate Black and White Blocks ID Badge Holder Polyester Lanyard
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Flaker, Granular, Powder, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [ Fruit Infuser Water Bottle,Coffee Cup Holder, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch,Custom Ceramic Mug].China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Ergonomic Net Back Office Chair High Quality Supplier]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels.Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve(polyelectrolytes)Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould-ionic polymers [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Aluminum Household Step Ladder].Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown,Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle,Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Plastic Faucet and Mold Suppling, Injection Mould Maker in China
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing]. These include (1)Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [China Manufacturer Competitive Price Chlorine Cylinder Valve,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [m.fq-laser.com,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,High Quality CE 110V/220V Adjustable Power Supply].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine]. For instance,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hangershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box,Sports Field Area Square Pole 150W LED Parking Lot Light,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter[China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35).Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panelshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer.MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center[Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover. for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparentoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine.Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housingshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8),Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455,Product Design and Molding]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Blocking Agent Masterbatch Filler Injection,Bipolar Hall Sensor].

Furthermore,Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [skrscale.com,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004)].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid].TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.5 Inch Monochrome Custom Display Screen 5V 20pin Ra8835 320X240 LCD Moduleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[TR115C Rotary Drilling Rig machine with Cummins Engine]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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