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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve].Solar Alarm Warning Security Anti-Theft Light Sensor Waterproof Farm Garden Lampshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [ Rice,4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China),Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter].Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Aluminum Die Casting Suppliers]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan]. In a typical flotation process (Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube,UHF RFID Smart Cards].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping],Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine,Best Quality Lightweight Aluminum Composite Panels].Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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2.2.Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [yunyangcosmetic,Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag[Magnetic Front-Service P2.5/P3 Indoor LED Display]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures–Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [98 Smart Board IR Iwb Interactive Whiteboard LED LCD Screen for Education and Meetings,ISO9001 & Ce Certificated Superfine Cocoa Cake Powder Grinder Mill]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole,4*2 Dongfeng Refrigerator Truck]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [13-25microns Pet Metallic Hologaphic Transfer Foil/Film for Decoration Material,Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve]. With an increase in pH,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List,2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing].Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler,www.szfanshitong.com].D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel, a high requirement on pH,Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [ Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way,Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work[SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens.4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plugshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand,Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Concentric/Con Reducer,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress].
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,New SMT Desktop Reflow Oven, Puhui T-937, SMD LED Soldering Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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