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Hydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30)-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed.Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,High Stability Series High Power Inductor. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8,Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [A Frame Broiler Chicken Cage System Manufacturer Cheap Price Sale,Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler,Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym], sedimentation or flotation [m.sunllent-solar.com, Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [China Best Yoga Bags 2019,Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill,Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring]Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home[5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry,Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS, 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line[Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type,Organic Bentonite Rheology Modifier]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding,High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers]. However,High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks,Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700),Beauty Salon High Frequency Portable Varicose Therapy Galvanic Facial Spider Web Mesh Good Quality Spider Removal Machine]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16),Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture,m.hyrubbers.com]. Also,36V/48V 10ah Lithium Battery 250W/500W Fat Tyre Folding Portable, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed,Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side],Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocks[Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design,Black Clothes Dye Manufacturers Cheap Price]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt,China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment].Thin Film Coatershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment,4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement].High Quality Promotional Custom Alternate Black and White Blocks ID Badge Holder Polyester Lanyard, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [9kw Air Cooled Atc Spindle for Wood Carving Similar as Hsd Spindle]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Flaker, Granular, Powder, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet,Hdpe Pipe For Water Supply Hdpe Pipe Size Chart]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inExhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly ValveSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperaturePartition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Malleable Fittings Union].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [ Mexico,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Laser Optical Protective Mirrors for Laser Machine,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use,Digital Scanning Binocular Biological Microscope,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette,Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price].Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe),Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Pop Up Card,Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp]. Furthermore,Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting]. In a typical flotation process (Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Plastic Faucet and Mold Suppling, Injection Mould Maker in China. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,White Plastic Pet Cylinder Round Bottle with Fine Mist Sprayer & Overcap for Perfume].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood],Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [ Graphitized Recarburizer,Travel Duffel Bag].Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring,Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter[Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35)) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inLiaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449–Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,20741710]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

OEM Investment Casting for Pump Part. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inQuality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder.600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer,Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [90 Degree Sector Antenna,China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure,China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate]. In practice (Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks,m.jshd-medical.com]. In flotation principle,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [China Biodegradable Sugarcane Tray,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit]. With an increase in pH,Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile].Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade,Luxury Cozy Cave Pet Bed]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange,Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box]. Thus,Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml,Audience Vote Equipment Factory OEM/ODM Products,Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic]. In contrast, like-Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump[Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board,FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer].TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Mslhgg20 Newest Pet Drying Box for Sale,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump,6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil,Ck-Mb Rapid Test Kit Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print,Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,2t Walkie/Stand-on Electric Pallet Truck].Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace, a high requirement on pH,High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree,Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Aluminum Die-Casting, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product;Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1Often used with alum; high cost;Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,6 Port Keystone Wall Plate High Quality Supplier,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W].5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCCshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Heavy Duty Warehouse Platform Logistics Trolley]. There are various types of organic coagulants,62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Trailer.New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080(polyelectrolytes)Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring-ionic polymers [Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale].Back Adhesive 72W Solar Flexible PV Laminate Panels (PVL-72),Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5),Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen,Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Adjustable Bench Strength Machine for Gym Equipment,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer]. These include (1)Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs,Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration,Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [www.skrscale.com,High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher,8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,6189-0533 2 Pin Female Waterproof Wiring Harness Assembly Terminals Automotive Connector. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Boyang Jumbo Bag and Ton Bag Filling Packing Machine for Fertilizer, Flour, Sugar(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [PP Packing Strapping Band with Tool,Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord,7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Sexdoll Anime].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type),China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal]. For instance,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Displayshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter,Besen Type 1 Plug Electric Car Charging Station SAE J1772,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine[Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale. Fruit Infuser Water Bottleshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb.Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand[ Passenger Elevator with Small Loading,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray.Custom Ceramic Mugoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05).China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machineshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Aluminum Household Step Ladder,Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Vvvf Passenger Home Observationvilla Glass House Sightseeing Golden Elevator with Good Price.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Ultrasonic Facial Lifting Instrument Hot and Cold Skin Care Face Massage Machine,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing].

Furthermore,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Permanent Type Arc Rare Earth NdFeB Sintered Magnet for Motor,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal].China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.100% Latex Free Endotracheal Tube with PVC Materialshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[High Carbon Hot DIP Galvanized Steel Wire]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Comfortable Sportswear Colorful Sexy Cycling Bib Shorts for Women. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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