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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes]. In a typical flotation process (Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram,99.999% Helium Gas in High Pressure Gas Cylinder Manufacturer].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment],Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h), whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine].Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Heavy Duty Green Scouring Pad Factory OEM/ODM Products,Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05),Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags[Affordable Price 7005]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel,Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inUs Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor–Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing,LED Road Light 120W with Ce CB for Public Lightings]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine,Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Wicker Oval Picnic Basket,Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b]. With an increase in pH,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools,Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade].Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,Camera Hot Shoe To Screw Mount].Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts, a high requirement on pH,Rosen 4kw off Grid Solar Energy Systems with Battery Bank. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inPolyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine,Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621].Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [En-Gjs-700-2]. There are various types of organic coagulants,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023).Easy Installation 4FT Plastic Folding Picnic Table (M-X1804)(polyelectrolytes)Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light-ionic polymers [Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror,Vital Injector].Small Home Plastic Injection Molding Machine Overmolding Machine,APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal.
Name
Formula
Typical properties
Uses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl
PAC 23
* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Heat Transfer Sublimation Aluminum Sheet for Advertising Board
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
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Dispersions: In this case,Hot Sales Beauty Products Cosmetics Make up Face Blush Brush Makeup Brush. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)[Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock,Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction.Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hatshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Sdlg Starter Motor 3708010-52ey/a, 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Middle Sealing Wet Tissue Plastic Packing Bag,MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line].Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.120g Preform Suppliers for Saleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Gemstone Connectors Round Shape Gemstone Bezel Connectors, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Malleable Fittings Union. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Industrial Alumina Ceramic Insulating Sleeve(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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