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Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Foundry Flux,Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling], sedimentation or flotation [Engineering Foundation Support Hole Air Pneumatic Drilling Rigs for Sale,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Healthy Swamp Cooler Desert Air Cooler with Negative Ionizer (JH157),One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Fruit Juice Production Line]Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel Shoes[Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder,Glass Clamps Stainless Steel,0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane[Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security,Lipol Battery 11.1V 3s 850 mAh Li Polymer Battery Packs]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal,High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6]. However,PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug,chinapucornice]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,I-V Curve]. Also,13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery,Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold],Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade[100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting,Led Strip Chdmt55lb21]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping,UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift].Nose Wire and Ear Loop Welding Machineshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector,LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light,High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable].ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [www.steelstructureonline.com]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes,3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage,Block Making Machine Factory OEM/ODM Products]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in Injection Mould Maker in China.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 InchSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureNc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine,Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [OEM 32215 7515e Taper Roller Bearing for Automotive 10% Discount,Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products,Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic,High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine,5 Inch Touch Panel Kit Factory OEM/ODM Products,Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262),Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing].Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#), whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link),PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [China Graphite Electrode Price,Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle]. Furthermore,Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design]. In a typical flotation process (Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml),Hot Motorcycle Spark Plug Dpr8ea-9 for 4929].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Modular Prefab Hire Cabins]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket],STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller].Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Bipolar Hall Sensor, Ah3041, Speed Sensor

Polymer molecular weight (MW)New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Aluminum Profile For Led Display,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes,Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W[ Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine,LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inOrthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support–Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W,10.5mm Diamond Wire Saw for Cutting Reinforce Concrete]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inRapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material.Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor,3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing,Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.50*100, 50*200mm 3D Security Welded Wire Mesh Fence Panel. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Text Tampered Holograms,Private Label Teeth Whitening Activated Charcoal Powder Organic Natural Coconut Charcoal Powder for Daily Use,Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs]. In practice (Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital,Beautiful Drinking Glasses]. In flotation principle,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine,Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Hot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine,Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Belt Swing For Kid,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box]. With an increase in pH,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Circuit Breakerminiature Circuit Breaker, MCB, RCD, RCCB, RCBO 2p Dz47le-63

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Portable Laser Engraver 20W,Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine].Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet,Bgf-800 CPP Dry Laminating Machine]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes,Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass,Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram]. Thus,4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol,Self Balance Balancing Scooter Hover Board Unicycle,300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment]. In contrast, like-2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street[Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine].Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Yjv Yjv22 1X50 Suitable for 15kw Generator,Affordable Price 7005,Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing,Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part,Used Clothings Girl Dress Children Party Dress,New Spinning Rod Bag Reel Bag Fishing Bag]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration,Plastic PVC (vacuum calibration cooling tank haul off cutter stacker) Pipe Extruding Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights,China Skeleton Container Truck Trailer].Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing, a high requirement on pH,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCustom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness,Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine;Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow SectionOften used with alum; high cost;Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1),European Desk Lamp Suppliers/Manufacturers for Sale, Service Food Truck].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine,Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED].Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792bshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [www.nbtopvision.com]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men.Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon(polyelectrolytes)Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets-ionic polymers [Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools,Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade].Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant, Hzs25 Small Concrete Batching Plant,Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet .

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Fashion Wholesale Clothes Clothing Swim Beach Boxer Custom Sprots Running Gym Shorts,Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [www.aeonlaser.net,Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape]. These include (1)OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [DC Power Supply 380V Input to 110V DC Output Battery Charging Cabinet,Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale,Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder,860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [HD 1080P Wdm Hidden Digital Video CCTV Mini Camera, Black Excavator Track Rollers,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China,High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole,300mm~900mm Diamond Saw Blade for Cutting Granite].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer,Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System]. For instance,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth,mc4 solar connector,Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70)[Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack,High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale.Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incinerationshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth.Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine[Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light.Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machineoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V.Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirrorshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Vital Injector]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne,Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102,Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Temperature Controller Ksd301 Thermostat for Refrigeration Parts/Air Conditioner,High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel].

Furthermore,Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40,Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q), biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Equal Angle Steel,Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking].China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Decorative Satin Ribbon Tape Ribbon for Gift Packingshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Luxurious Over-Bed Table Adjustable Height Overbed Table in Hospital]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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