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Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades.High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable,Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Cartridge Micro Filter,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood, Graphitized Recarburizer,Travel Duffel Bag], sedimentation or flotation [Nylon Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor Screw with Nail,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449,High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Pneumatic Impact Wrenche,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer]Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s[Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20),Mini Cocoa Peanut Paste Grinding Butter Colloid Mill for Sale,China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light[China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks,www.worldlinkhat.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator]. However,Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use,Top Selling Single Head High Speed Computerized Embroidery Machine with Embroidery Hoops]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade,2 Pipe Connect Floor Drain Cover Use for Bathroom Shower Types]. Also,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange,Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box],New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#)[Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml,Vacuum Venting Foamed EPS EPE Pellet Production Machine]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board,FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe].Two Roll Open Mixing Mill for Reclaimed Rubbershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector,Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil].Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM), thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [High Quality Vibration Feeder for Coal]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video,Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print,Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,Crossfit Rubber Floor Mat]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden DecorationSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature12V Car Tail Light for Ranger
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid,Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Aluminum Cnc Machining,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC,08b Roller Chain With Attachment,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale,Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen].Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws),UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO). These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Metal Label Holder,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer]. Furthermore,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs]. In a typical flotation process (Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket,Supply High Quality Diatomaceous Earth Filter Aid (Diatomite/Kieselguhr filter aid)].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I],High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector].Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Industrial RO Filter Water Treatment,Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102,Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube[7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox,Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inWaterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)–Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Tmh8 Piston Air Motor Anti-Overload Function Clockwise and Anti-Clockwise Function]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inRigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type).Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Prefabricated Structural Steel Office Frame,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder,Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag]. In practice (OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [ Fruit Infuser Water Bottle,Adjustable Clips]. In flotation principle,Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [ Passenger Elevator with Small Loading,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Custom Ceramic Mug,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [600ml Chrismats Gift Drinking Bottle Promotional Collapsible Silicone Foldable Water Bottle,Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton]. With an increase in pH,Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Aluminum Household Step Ladder,Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children].Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine,Jinrui Mobile Dual-Shaft Concrete Block Making Mixing Machine Plant Js1250]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper]. Thus,Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels,Aluminium Alloy Flat Round Washer,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331]. In contrast, like-Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass[High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine,JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine].Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Industrial Natural Gas Boiler,Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box,Wholesale Production Echinacea Extract Powder Water Soluble High Purity Plant Extract Echinacea Extract].Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray, a high requirement on pH,Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inM3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS;25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria MarketOften used with alum; high cost;2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel,100t Mining Truck Used Hydraulic Steering Control Unit Bzz5-E1000b Hydraulic Power Steering Units,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent].Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housingshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [New Reducing Detergent Psr-08 (Efficient Substitutes for Hydrosulfite)]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor.Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff(polyelectrolytes)5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry-ionic polymers [Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)].Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck,Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455,Product Design and Molding].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Coconut Oil Filter Machine,Bipolar Hall Sensor]. These include (1)Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Manual Fabric Sample Cutting Machine,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004),Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [5 Bars Farm Gate,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat,Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying,Compressed Springs Clips For Sale].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff]. For instance,9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LEDshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box,Crystal Rfid Glue Epoxy Tag Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites[6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Stability Series High Power Inductor.Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seamshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

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PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser),Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag,Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch).

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [5ml Aluminum Sprayer Perfume Bottle with Open Window (APB-14),Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate].

Furthermore,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM),Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave,Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Hydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30), biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Hydraulic Offshore Marine Deck Crane,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption,Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes].China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Popcorn Weighing Food Detergent Powder Packing Machineshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[m.vibratemotor.com]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry,Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500)].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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