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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Corrugated Carton Box Nc Cutting Machine].Baby Winter Romper High Quality Suppliershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Capsule Size 3 Empty Hard Gelatin Capsules 100% Bovine Gelatin Vacant Capsule,High Efficient Lint Remover Sticky Roller, 00cr20ni25mo4.5cu].Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Cheap Injection Mold]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)],DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set].En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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2.2.LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Plastic Sunglasses Made in China Wholesale Sun Glasses 2018,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker[Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser),Aluminum Household Step Ladder) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inNeoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers–Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,Rechargeable Emergency Light Exit Light (HK-297)]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
2.2.One Wheel Hovershoes, Hoverboard and Electric Skatboard
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker].Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,m.laiya-jewelry.com].304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate, a high requirement on pH,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inStainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Polypropylene Needle Punched Geotextile for Construction; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine.
Dispersions: In this case,Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Plastic Crusher Machine,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,solar tracker cable].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine[Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping.9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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4.2.2 Cationic polymers
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Flower Pattern Pet Film Laminated Steel Sheet for Household Appliances,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk].Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Waste Transformer Oil Recycling Machine Dehydration Acetylene Removalshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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