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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Rosen 4kw off Grid Solar Energy Systems with Battery Bank]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems],9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Full Tested LCD Screen Replacement for iPhone 6s Plus,100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor].8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Custom Tempered Glass Top, Silk-Screen Printing Glass Dining Table Top. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
2.2.AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable
Polymer molecular weight (MW)160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [China Frequency Diaper Pad Machine with High Quality (YNK400-FC),High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine[DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device,Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in6189-0533 2 Pin Female Waterproof Wiring Harness Assembly Terminals Automotive Connector–110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [36V/48V 10ah Lithium Battery 250W/500W Fat Tyre Folding Portable,Camellia Sinensis Extract]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning].Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Eco-Friendly Vegetable Oil Cast Iron Multi Frying Pan,Custom-Transparent-Zipper-PVC-Underwear-Pouch-EVA Bags].Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children, a high requirement on pH,Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inAnatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate,1.8m Height Hot Dipped Galvanized Chain Link Fencing]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing.
Dispersions: In this case,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking[All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace,Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray.Piston Pulse Solenoid Valveshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light,Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame,Gemstone Connectors Round Shape Gemstone Bezel Connectors]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Dapeng Advertising Laser Welding Machine Spot Welder Machine Equipment 200W,Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine,Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid].Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Crystal Water Bottleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine,220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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