Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

Downloaded: 1551

Abstract

Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights.Stainless Steel Bowl, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount,Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,CL1C-GW123 Comlom PC Water Bottle, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter,Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Non Slip Laminate Flooring, Wedding]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light,Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products,Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter], sedimentation or flotation [Ocrown Chameleon Pigment Color Shifting Color Changing,Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator,WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [www.shunstone.com,Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday,Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Vp-0200 Intelligent Electric Valve Actuator Rotary Valve Motorized Actuator Low Torque Actuator for Ball Valve Butterfly Valve Quarter Turn Electric Actuator]Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle[LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN,Infrared Night Vision Scope,Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp[Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Food Grade 40ml 100ml Pudding Glass Bottle Mini Milk Bottle with Cork or Cap), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper,Newly Reversible Sequin Wine Bottle Pouch Bottle Bag for Sublimation]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit,Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair]. However,AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve,AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump,m.hrl-battery.com]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf,25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine,4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal,Steel Wire for Flexible Duct and Screw]. Also,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150),Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow,Wedge Pump for Women],Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts[Small Home Plastic Injection Molding Machine Overmolding Machine,Mens Straw Trilby Fedora Summer Sun Hat]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel,Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle,110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Dental Clinic Gift Kids Present Cartoon Train Toothbrush].Climbing Netshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Clear Black Empty 15ml 30ml 50ml 100ml Frosted White Square Glass Perfume Bottles,Front Service Ability Ha2.5 640*1920mm Poster Screen for Store Advertising,High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans].25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Plus Size Swimwear]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball,Stone Grinding Mill (YGM Series),Customization! Bdy380CD Horizontal Directional Drilling Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels,China Power Diesel Generator]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Container House as Kinder Garden, Modular House as School, Container House for Clinic or HospitalSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth, Car Spray Inflatable Booth, Stock Tent for Sale, American paint Booth Style
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Wholesale Scc638 High Efficiency Water-Based Cutting Fluid in Hot Sale].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest,Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [2016 New Design Nylon Outdoor Camping Tents Pop up Tents Wholesale,Geyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate,Nano Titanium Dioxide TiO2 Powder,Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof Materials,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag,Ss304l Steel Coil Tubing,Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt,Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy,Hans Free Sample Stylish Lace Necklace].Black Steel Square Pipe, Bright Surface for Furniture, Rectangular Black Pipe, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Ventilation Axial Fan for Cooling System),High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Qtj4-40 Cement Concrete Block Making Machine for Sale Hollow Paver Brick Machine with Concrete Mixer,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale]. Furthermore,Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Factory Price 75 Ohm Rg 59 RG6 Rg11 Rg7 CATV CCTV Cable with 2c 2 Power Coaxial Cable Rg59]. In a typical flotation process (New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [ Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine,aihdcam.com].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Hot Sale Ladies Handbags Fashion Coin Purse Leather Wallet with Flower Printing]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [RS-380 High Power DC Brushed Motor Cordless Screwdriver],New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb,License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold].Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [amber beer bottle,Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade[Automatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped Machine]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant,Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inFirst Class Small Permanent Block Magnets–Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light, Soda Ash(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Corrugated Carton Box Nc Cutting Machine,Electric Label Dispenser “High Speed” Manufacturers Cheap Price]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps.Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Capsule Size 3 Empty Hard Gelatin Capsules 100% Bovine Gelatin Vacant Capsule,High Efficient Lint Remover Sticky Roller, 00cr20ni25mo4.5cu]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Glass Door Hotel and Home Use Mini Beverage Fridge (JGA-SC68),Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch,Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy]. In practice (Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality,Heavy Furniture Drawer Sliders Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. In flotation principle,Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Wallet,Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness,05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Oak Laminate Grey Floating Cork Vinyl Plank Flooring,Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry]. With an increase in pH,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine,Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42].Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder,Small Hydraulic Station]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity,2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts]. Thus,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors),Akd Sizing Agent,Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake]. In contrast, like-Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill[Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle,Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire].Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008).

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Jwell-PLA|Pet Plastic Biodegradable Sheet Recycling Agricultural Making Extrusion Machine for Food Packing|3-D Printing|Garbage Bag|Agricultural Mulch Film,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine,Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set,Clarity Tester/Tester of Clarity of Injection and Bottled Medicine Liquid,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OHions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,2018 Newest Sport Logo Custom Iron on Woven Embroidery Patches].Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller, a high requirement on pH,Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500). Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented ina PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate,Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4
Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor;Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047)Often used with alum; high cost;Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [ SMD LED Soldering Machine,Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover].FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Trayshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Lucid Glass Jar With Metal]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass.D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel(polyelectrolytes)Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine-ionic polymers [Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber].Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration,Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab,Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl
PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Portable 20g Ozone Generator for Water Purifier
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58
PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7
PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [12kv Outdoor Electric Power Disconnector Switch Isolator,Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale]. These include (1)Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [China 220V 380V Single Phase Variable Frequency Inverters for Motors and Pumps,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store,OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Car Checking Fixture for Auto Vehicle Metal Part,Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market,Lpa-1000t Factory High Quality 4 Zone Subwoofer Subwoofer Amplifier].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler,Aluminum Pipe 3003]. For instance,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Formingshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox,Baby Height Chair,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set[PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid.Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Partshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar.7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem[Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave.Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400toutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work.Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Countryshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Corrugated Carton Box Making Machine,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts].

Furthermore,Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [ P60,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light,JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Screw /Fastener DIN7504 Sheet Metal Screw Csk/ Self Drilling Screw Self /Tapping Screw,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Telescopic Camera Jib Crane]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply].Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Supermarket Display Plastic Label Holder in Custom Sizeshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity
[New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Brass Wire Mesh Type]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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How to cite and reference

Cite this chapterHigh Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)

Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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