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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Tractor Piston Seal,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation], sedimentation or flotation [China Industrial Water Purifier Pump Filter for Drink and Food,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Decorative Item From Waste Material Of Bottle,99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade]Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate[Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business,m.dgls-tech.com,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line[Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette,Carbon Air Filter Hepa]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Fruit Juice Production Line,Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder]. However,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment,Colourful Hotel Painting]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security,Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,12---18mm Double Sides Melamine Coated Plywood for Decoration]. Also,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug,Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291],Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades[Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part,CNC Machine Clinical Portable Diagnostic Triveni Impedance Audiometer Panel and Enclosure]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC),CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine].New Product High Quality Fashion Wristbands Custom Silicone Wristbandshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping].High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [3.7v 5a Lithium Ion]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna,Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift,Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector,Limestone Stair]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inLED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb SportswearSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [HDI PCB with High Tg Material and Green Solder Mask Prototype,3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage, Injection Mould Maker in China,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover,Coffee Paper Glass,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine,Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable,Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe].Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products),High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Zinc Alloyed Al Mg Steel Coil,Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic]. Furthermore,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine]. In a typical flotation process (Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262)), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link],9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle,2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design].8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Nobeth Restaurant and Food Industry Heated Steam Boiler Generators,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine[Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml)]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device,Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inModular Prefab Hire Cabins–110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket,China Excellent 350mm Continuous Sintered Diamond Wet Cutting Blade]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inYczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit.Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [0.5 micron High efficiency stainless steel fine filter,Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support,Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W]. In practice (Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor,Cotton Bag]. In flotation principle,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing,Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Private Label Teeth Whitening Activated Charcoal Powder Organic Natural Coconut Charcoal Powder for Daily Use,Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Cup Glass,Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas]. With an increase in pH,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital,China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine].Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine,30ml Pet Clear Plastic Disc Press Cap/Cover Lotion Bottle/Colorful Bottle]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Hot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine,Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box]. Thus,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Portable Laser Engraver 20W,Fiber Optic Tool Fiber Fusion Splicing Tool Kit,Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine]. In contrast, like-200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine[50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet,ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes].UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Business Agent Service China Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram,33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment,Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face,Industrial Equipment Parts Cardan Shaft with Closed Eye Bearing Design,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12),Affordable Price 7005].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor,Organic Fertilizers Restaurant Food Residue Drying Treatment Equip for Sale].Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children, a high requirement on pH,Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inColorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part,New Spinning Rod Bag Reel Bag Fishing Bag]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage;Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe MachineOften used with alum; high cost;Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration,Plastic,Plastic PVC (vacuum calibration cooling tank haul off cutter stacker) Pipe Extruding Machine].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights,Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook].Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harnessshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [High Quality Inert Ceramic Ball]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox.Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return(polyelectrolytes)Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation-ionic polymers [Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1)].BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [ Service Food Truck,Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [High Tensile Yellow Galvanized Chain with Grab Hook,Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED]. These include (1)Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b,Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools,Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [E2 Test Kit Suppliers for Sale,Fashion Wholesale Clothes Clothing Swim Beach Boxer Custom Sprots Running Gym Shorts,Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape,Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Wholesale Auto Parts Wheel Hub Used Clutch Bearing Type Price List,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale,Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory,Super Quality Carbon Steel Sheet Metal Bending Service Box Fabrication].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder,860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay]. For instance, Black Excavator Track Rollersshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold,Bs Power Cable,Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking[High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole,Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray.Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing Systemshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS.25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market[PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer.Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machineoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site.Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sackshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration,Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Deep Groove Ball,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine].

Furthermore,5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror,Vital Injector,Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [1000kg Home Lift Passenger Elevator,Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40].Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.m.kundetools.comshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[ Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Oil and Gas Oil Field High Security Chain Link Fencing]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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