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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
For instance (Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine),PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Hydroxyethyl Cellulose 9004-62-0,Neoprene Elbow Support]. Furthermore,Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch.
Figure 3.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Vvvf Passenger Home Observationvilla Glass House Sightseeing Golden Elevator with Good Price]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve],Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Lightweight Concrete Panels Machine,Flexible Printed Circuit Board PCB Flexible Board].Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Custom Electrical Automotive Wire Harness for Industry or Home Appliances,Liyuan 4 Inch Stainless Steel Impeller Submersible Water Pumps], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch[Electronic Stainless Steel Plate Temperature & Humidity Testing Chamber (HD-150T)]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm,3t 5m Good Design Chain Block) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inHydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30)–High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil,ERW Welded BS4568 Galvanized Steel Pipe Class 3]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light,Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame].Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube,Garden Water Features].PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector, a high requirement on pH,Enhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car GPS Navigation 1 DIN; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer, 10kv 11kv Power Distribution Transformer Power Transformer
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type).
Dispersions: In this case,Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [120 Hp Air Compressor,Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve,Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing,Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W,Hot Dipped Galvanized Welded Rectangular Pipe].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon[Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale,Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts.Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gunshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [High Strength PVC Panel Cutting Panel Saw,Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring].Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Custom OEM Factory Resin Halloween Decorationshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type,High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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