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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag.Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps.,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,Neoprene Elbow Support. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16). The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500),TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [300l Gasoline Air Compressor, 100mg5ml]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper,DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator], sedimentation or flotation [4x4 Lift Shocks For Tundra,Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker,Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [High Efficient Automatic Bread Crumbs Panko Processing Line,Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence,Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override]Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t[Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet,Teeth Whitening Pen with OEM Label,8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires[Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone,3 Axis Cnc Router Machine]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower,Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab]. However,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color,Single Cavity Plastic Colorful Wine Cup Mouldings]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming,N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment,Manufacturer 18oz Tritan Fruit Sports Plastic Water Bottle]. Also,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [ Embroidered Name Patch,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants,High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light],Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel[Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine,Wholesale Custom Bubble Bag]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick,Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts].Customized Metal Design Cut out Antique Sports 3D Half Marathon Souvenir Finisher Medalshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India,Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine].Protective Roof Rubber Blocks, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Return Conveyor Idler]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine,Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Combination Shoe Display Rack,Cold Rolled Sheet]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inVape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry BoxSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureMagnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46); and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Velvet,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover,Catering Equipment 4 Burners Gas Stove Gas Cooker with Cabinet,Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone,Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit,Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes].Custom Ceramic Mug, Two Tone Coffee Mug, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price),PVC Steel Wire Reinforced Pipe Hose for Transfer Water Oil and Powder. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Hotel Bedding,Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab]. Furthermore,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge]. In a typical flotation process (Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700,4.3 Inch Touch LCD Display Module Naked Industrial Tablet PC Computer].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration],ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box].700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Automatic Soap Bag in Box Packing Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Bottle Pasteuriser,Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine[Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inBright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop–Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove,Material Auto Loader]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inPerfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths.Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross,UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO),Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe,Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector, Bale Tine]. In practice (Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink,Mobile Phone LCD Touch Screen for Samsung Galaxy S8]. In flotation principle,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555,3t 5m Good Design Chain Block].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [High Quality Automatic Food with Tray Pillow Type Packaging Machine,Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35)]. With an increase in pH,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW). For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding,Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine].Product Design and Molding.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve,Longline Men Velour Shirt Sleeve T Shirt]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet,10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan,Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W]. Thus,14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [ Seasoning,Silicone Bird Cock Shape Pot Clip Spoon Holder Cooking Spoon Rest,Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table]. In contrast, like-Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone[48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006)].Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Stainless Steel Natural M4 ISO13918 Weld Threaded Stud PT,Plastic Bucket Injection Mould,High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly,Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter,Retail Design,Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Steel Swivel Rigging Hook,PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining,Linen Church Seating Design Church Chair (JY-G040)].High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block, a high requirement on pH,Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System,Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System;Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water PumpOften used with alum; high cost;High Quality Restaurant Booth Seating From Factory Sale, Booth Seating for Restaurant
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine,Opt System TUV Medical Ce Approved Hm IPL B8 Advanced Opt System Multifunctional Opt Shr IPL Skin Facial Rejuvenate Hair Removal IPL Instrument for Beauty Salon,Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price,DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12].Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinetshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [High Speed Automatic Plastic Drinking Straw Extrusion Line]. There are various types of organic coagulants,3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing.Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding(polyelectrolytes)Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt-ionic polymers [Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts,Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner].Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012).

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1)
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Easy Lift Utility Anchor,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats]. These include (1)7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing,4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Fast Speed Fat Tire Bike Ele⪞ Tri⪞ ⪞ Ity⪞ O⪞ O,Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home,Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder,Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Customize Rewritable 13.56MHz MIFARE DESFire EV1 EV2 2K 4K 8K Card ISO14443A RFID Contactless Smart Card,Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV, Wedding]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light,Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products,China Visor Bucket Hat].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter,Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch]. For instance,Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valveshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator,Good Quality Gloves,WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable[Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday,Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna.Vp-0200 Intelligent Electric Valve Actuator Rotary Valve Motorized Actuator Low Torque Actuator for Ball Valve Butterfly Valve Quarter Turn Electric Actuatorshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

Four-Shaft Auto Polyester, BOPP, PE Film Slitting Machine[Safety Shoes High Quality Rain Boots Building Site Protection Boots].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping.Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables[LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN,Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer.Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixeroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee.Food Grade 40ml 100ml Pudding Glass Bottle Mini Milk Bottle with Cork or Capshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit,Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair,Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Qk1338 Big Diameter Oil Pipe Turning Lathe, Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [College Used Zoology Prepared Slides Factory OEM/ODM Products,AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump].

Furthermore,Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf,25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine,4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Ceiling Pendant System,Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150)]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow,Wedge Pump for Women].Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Home Textile 100% Pure Cotton Wadding for Quiltsshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Small Home Plastic Injection Molding Machine Overmolding Machine]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Electrical PV DC Solar Cable]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Dental Clinic Gift Kids Present Cartoon Train Toothbrush,Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Geyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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