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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Fungicide Insecticide,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV,China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings], sedimentation or flotation [Grey/ White Ventilation Hose,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Water Treatment Chemicals Flocculant Standard for Reverse Osmosis Membrane, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set]Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale[Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8),Eas Security Detacher,Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole[Product Design and Molding].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Bipolar Hall Sensor), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,Pharmacy Capillary Remote Seal Differential Pressure Level Sensor]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline]. However,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004),Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor,Square Mesh Bird Netting]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door,China Marble Fountain]. Also,160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying,Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs],Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam[Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box,Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe].608zz Bearing Products Made in Chinashows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home,Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather].Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Green Carpet Tile]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser),Battery Cage Chicken Layer]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inCheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation TapeSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperaturePVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [PA Corrugated Pipe Extruder,Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave,Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan,China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light,Plant Facial Sheet Mask Rose & Lemon & Honey Moisturizing Oil Control Hydrating Mask Whitening Anti-Aging Wrapped Face Skin Care,5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption,Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes,Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer].15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass),Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Factory Price Nut,Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel]. Furthermore,Rexroth 4we6e, 4we6j, 4we6h, 4we6g, 4we6u/4we6t/4we6d Hydraulic Solenoid Directional Pneumatic Control Valve Best Price.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim]. In a typical flotation process (High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500),Cnc Guideway Slideway Covers].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [ 100mg5ml],Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006), whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper].Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Arch Inflatable,DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp[Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug,New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inB Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman–Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker,Gold Star Square Glass Candle Holder for Wedding Decoration]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inAutomatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine.Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence,Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel,1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Food Trailer Catering Trailer Food Truck +Furniture Set, Service Food Truck. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Large Capacity Half Gallon Drink Water Bottle for Outdoor Sports Gym Fitness,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet,8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane]. In practice (Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant,Gynecology Equipment Multi-Function Ozone Gynecological Therapy for Gynecology]. In flotation principle,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab,All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Ball Valve Dn50 Suppliers for Sale,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color]. With an increase in pH,2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming].25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient,Wholesale Full Set Disposable Auto Accessory Car Seat Cover]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment, Embroidered Name Patch,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants]. Thus,Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light,Distressed Black Tv Console,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine]. In contrast, like-Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)[Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick,Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book].European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Food Additive Sodium Alginate Food Grade for Thickener,Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts,Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India,Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer,Frying Machine Corn Flakes Snacks Food Chips Making Machine Pellet Puff Feed Cheese Ball Processing Machine,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed,Grinding Steel Ball For Copper Mining Factory & Manufacturer].CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends, a high requirement on pH,Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCombination Shoe Display Rack. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom,Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine;Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup MoldOften used with alum; high cost;Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3,3D Channel Letters Stainless Steel LED Halo Backlit Sign L,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe].New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphoneshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Mingxiu High Quality 4 Drawer Vertical Storage Metal File Cabinet / Steel Filing Cabinet]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole.JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve(polyelectrolytes)T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card-ionic polymers [Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover,Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone].Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator,High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction,Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Stainless Steel Bowl, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit,Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Cable Protector Rubber Grommets,Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price]. These include (1)Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)CL1C-GW123 Comlom PC Water Bottle, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab,Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge,Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Antique Bathroom Cabinet Factory OEM/ODM Products,Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700,2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration,Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Teflon Coating Thread Stud Bolt,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box,Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop,Female Union Pe Fitting].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove,Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths]. For instance,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Crossshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO),Wholesale High Quality 9 Rose Acrylic Flower Box,Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy[Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector, Bale Tine]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber.Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Beltshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design.Hot Sale Spindle Less Veneer Rotary Peeling Lathe, 1300mm, 2600mm[UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink,Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug.3t 5m Good Design Chain Blockoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine.Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofashows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35),Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding,Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Stainless Steel Food Grade Insulated Thermos Vacuum Cup,Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve].

Furthermore,4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet,10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan,Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Intelligent Oven Thermocouple Temperature Sensor Indicator Controller K Input Relay, Seasoning].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006)].Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.China Carbide Twist Drillshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Plastic Bucket Injection Mould]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Udp Multicast Encoder]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter,Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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