IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector,Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Handheld Inkjet Printer,PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts], sedimentation or flotation [High Quality Iron Oxide Pigment,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising,High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Cnc Laser Cut For Metal,Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type,Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5)]Vvvf Passenger Home Observationvilla Glass House Sightseeing Golden Elevator with Good Price[Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support,Blower Impeller Suppliers for Sale,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood[4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,Signal Generator High Quality Supplier]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine]. However,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [One Wheel Hovershoes,GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions,Silver Skirting Board]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [ Bright Surface for Furniture,Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves,Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s,Red Standard Hollow Block Machine]. Also,Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa,High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal,CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone],China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring[Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop,Moodle Tin Can]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube,72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine,Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump].Nr Roma Fabricshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp,Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor,Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk].Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [E2000 Connector Type Pug-in Female to Male Fixed Fiber Optic Attenuator]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Comfortable Sportswear Colorful Sexy Cycling Bib Shorts for Women. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty,AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube,Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel,Safety Alloy Steel Eye Foundry Chain Hook]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inPU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
(Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making MachineSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureInterior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants,Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Ladies Elegant Flat Shoes,Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves,Easy Installation 4FT Plastic Folding Picnic Table (M-X1804),Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine,HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line,Bdt001g Stainless Steel Adjustable Hospital Mobile Overbed Table for Patient with Wheels,Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping,En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm,Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel].AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (China Supplier Automatic Straight Seam ERW Pipe Making Machine),Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [2 Round Sash Pulley for Chain - Brass (PVD),Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit]. Furthermore,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery]. In a typical flotation process (Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall,China Reasonable Price Weed Cutting Suction Dredger /Grass Cutting Machine].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Heat Transfer Sublimation Aluminum Sheet for Advertising Board]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable],Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Protective Roof Rubber Blocks,8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids].Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [PPSU New Born Baby Feeding Bottle Wide Neck for Feeding Baby/Baby Bottle, Inductor], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis[Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine,China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inDC100 Long Service Life Air Suspension Turbo Blower for Pneumatic Conveying–Energy-Saving Home Elevator, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [200W 12V24VDC Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator for Sale Light,Amplifier Tube Glass Vacuum Tube (833C)]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Zhongneng Series Plate Press Oil Recovery Machine. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in MCB.Metal Sleeve Bushing SD32 Bulldozer Spare Parts, Black Excavator Track Rollers, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [ Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags,Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts,Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Automatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped Machine. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Japanese Style Garden Granite Stone Lanterns for Sale,ISO and Ce Approved Digital Thermometer for Both Hospital and Home Use,Mobile Phones LCD Screen for Huawei Mate 9 Lite Bll-L23 Honor 6X Gr5 2017 LCD Touch Screen/Display]. In practice (High Frequency Welding Pipe Roll Forming Machine), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller,Partition Slotter Machine]. In flotation principle,Eco-Friendly Vegetable Oil Cast Iron Multi Frying Pan-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage,W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [12v Dc Self-Priming Water Pump Manufacturers Cheap Price,62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Trailer]. With an increase in pH,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocks,Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose].Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,Party Tent Flooring]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine,Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale,ISO18000 Passive UHF RFID Tag Label for Asset Tracking]. Thus,Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light,Wheat Flour Milling Machine Manufacturers Traditional Chili Powder Grinding Machine,201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet]. In contrast, like-Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting[Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck,High Quality Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire for Protection Military Security Fence].Lightweight Concrete Panels Machine, Foam Concrete Wall Panel Machine.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Doy Pouch Packing Machine for Spices]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07).

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Cold Boards Perforated Metal Sheet Coils,CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine,13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill,Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud,A4 Size Plastic Nurse Clipboard With Sliding Ruler,4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film,High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets,Abs Skate Helmets].Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291, a high requirement on pH,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [High Quality Promotional Custom Alternate Black and White Blocks ID Badge Holder Polyester Lanyard,High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs;Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100tonOften used with alum; high cost;Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee,Conservatory Furniture Water Resistant Cookware Rattan Table Garden Outdoor Wicker Fire Pit,22kw AC Charger with Type 2 Interface].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising,China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price].1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Injectshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [2kw Deye Grid Tie Solar Power Inverter (SUN-2000G2-LCD)]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale.Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover(polyelectrolytes)Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen-ionic polymers [Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm,Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine].Good Quality 600mm 9W Energy Saving Aluminum 160lm/W LED Tube Light,Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator,Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes,T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Synthetic Grass Fake Turf Lawn for Public Green Field,Transparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1]. These include (1)25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [N95 Dust Cover Face Mask Machine,STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate,Oil Gas Line Pipe]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Diamond Cutting Wheel Equipment,Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge,High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel Shoes,PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Graphite Petroleum Coke Carbon Additive, Graphitized Recarburizer. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Stainless Steel Elbow 8 Pipe 2 Fittings Plastic Equal 4 PVC Carbon 6 Reducing Tee 3 Water 12 Female 2.5 Inch, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent,Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle,En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat,Mexico Rn100 Hydraulic Press Building Material Wall Panel Rolling Forming Machine Factory Price with ISO9001/Ce/SGS/Soncap].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Factory Price 0.5mm Clear Plastic Pet Film for Vacuum Forming,Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1]. For instance,Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragmshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles,Precision Metal Injection Molding Parts MIM Complex Metal Components Sintering Stainless Steel 316 304 Material,35L Electric Car Mini Fridge].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country[Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine.Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camerashows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit, Easy Light Cruiser 8inch.Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail[1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation.Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05)outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing.EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lightsshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs[Screw Compressor].

Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display,Tractor and Implements Disc Plough Harrow Mower Slasher 4 in 1 Front Loader Agricultural Equipments,Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09)]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,ISO18000 Passive UHF RFID Tag Label for Asset Tracking.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Flanged Braided Metal Hose Connector,(Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine].

Furthermore,100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine,Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204). Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Capsule Filling Machine Cost,OEM Service for Motorcycle Hoist in China].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags,Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration].Full Tested LCD Screen Replacement for iPhone 6s Plus, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Cloth Cnc Cutting Machineshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70)]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[DC 4.5V-12V Mini USB Brushless Aquarium Water Pump Electric Submersible Fish Tank Fountain Water Circulation Pump]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,98 Smart Board IR Iwb Interactive Whiteboard LED LCD Screen for Education and Meetings, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100,230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q)].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line). This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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