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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass].FDA Standard Metal Detector for Bakeryshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol,300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment,Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face].Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Oil Painting Canvas]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers.
Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [HDPE Black Anti Bird Netting for Highway or Airports Areas,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch[European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm,3t 5m Good Design Chain Block) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inWater Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale–High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory,Anti-Aging Acid and Alkali Resistant FRP Profile Pultruded Profiles Manufacturers Direct Supply]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions
Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inBending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder.2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay, Black Excavator Track Rollers,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine,Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Electric Masturbator Cup,High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House]. With an increase in pH,Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration,Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610].Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W,Automatic Stepping Motor].PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector, a high requirement on pH,Enhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring,D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car GPS Navigation 1 DIN; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer, 10kv 11kv Power Distribution Transformer Power Transformer
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type).
Dispersions: In this case,Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon[2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts.New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bagshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h)]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine.
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils].Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.2018 New Technology Cryo Hifu Ultrasound Skin Tighten Beauty Machineshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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