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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier>ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse> Sugar

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Abstract

5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier.Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover,Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [www.cablecreation.com,Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G),Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens,Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain], sedimentation or flotation [Cheap Indian Fashion Jewelry,Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Chocolate Box Mould,SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube,Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage]All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine[Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box,Automatic Egg Tray Machine,THK Bearing SSR20wxss]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid[Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117),www.dmgstainless.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent, BOPP]. However,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16),Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder,www.xuanmingbiochem.com]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc,Rubber Conveyor Belt Price Nylon for Rough Condition Fast Delivery]. Also,Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor,Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation,Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended],High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine[Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric,50mm PVC Helix Suction Hose]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192),LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e,All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design].High Quality Fabrication Columnshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip,Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck].Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Fabulous Quality Drop Forged Wire Rope Clips]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil, 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape,Small Precast Concrete Batching Plant Construction Machine for Sale]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inSw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet WrappingSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05),Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [High Power Rotary Laser Wood Cutting Machine,Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather,High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage,Dmx Motorized Led Color Ball,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke,Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis].Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance ( 1300mm),Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [60kw Dc Fast EV Charger,High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220]. Furthermore,EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine]. In a typical flotation process (Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC,Carbon Black Master Batch Suppliers for Sale].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ Automatic Bolt]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS],Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion].2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Custom Belt Buckle Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice[Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration–Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch),LED UV Spot Curing Lamp]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inSheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet.1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [High Quality Barium Carbonate Precipitated 99.2% Min with Factory Price,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal,Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e)]. In practice (Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe,Stainless Steel Angleizer Template Tool Measures Angle Template Tool]. In flotation principle,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine,Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover,CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [K300A 64 Bar/ 928psi High Pressure Hydraulic Hot Tapping Machine,High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal]. With an increase in pH,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine,Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor].Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels,3-12mm Multi Colorful Ceramic Frit Silk-Screen Printed Glass for Decoration/Building/Furniture]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window, 4we6j,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023)]. Thus,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter,Peltier Technology Micro Cooling System,Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens]. In contrast, like-Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine[4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage].2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Diving Led Light,Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67, HEC]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage,Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,Arms Vinyl Cutting Plotter with Laser Sensor,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping,Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man,Car Pipe Making Line Manufacturer Cheap Price Sale].Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle, a high requirement on pH,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home,100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement;Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D RulerOften used with alum; high cost;New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades,Battery Viega Pipe Press Tool Copper Pipe Crimping Tool,Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth,Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve].High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Suppliershows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Bus Spray Painting Booth]. There are various types of organic coagulants,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine.220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan(polyelectrolytes)High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans-ionic polymers [Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports,Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets].Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China).

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing, T2/Tp2].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Anti Glare 25W LED Track Light 3 Circuit,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer]. These include (1)China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole,Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple,LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [China Quality Heavy Duty Globe Control Valve,Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light,PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line)].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine,Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Hydraulic Side Opening Electric Hose Crimper with Die Sets,Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color,Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes,PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine,Sliding Mould Electronic Component Vertical 55ton Plastic Injection Machine].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System]. For instance,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Partsshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm,3-Way T Type Elbow Quick Connect Pneumatic Fitting,Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table[Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising,High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers.Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Typeshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment.Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise[Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500),Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5)]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox.Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Supportoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler.USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Windowshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers,Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [24v Led Light Auto Marine Rocker Switches Manufacturers Cheap Price,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine].

Furthermore,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [One Wheel Hovershoes,GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions, Bright Surface for Furniture]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Low Price Graphite Electrode Scrap,Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s,Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa].Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.www.corediamtool.comshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Adult Sex Nipple Stickers]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine,Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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