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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather],Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage].Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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2.2.Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Cable Crimping Tools Hot Sale Host Sale Hose Crimping Machine,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List,Plastic Faucet and Mold Suppling, Injection Mould Maker in China[Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inWater Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis–Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [ 1300mm,Cushion Covers Decorative]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration,17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch)]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Moly Heat Shield,Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet]. With an increase in pH,Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter,M2 Steel Thread Insert].Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners, a high requirement on pH,Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inIndustrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [ HEC,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage].Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottleshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Chemicals]. There are various types of organic coagulants,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes.Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace(polyelectrolytes)High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine-ionic polymers [Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet,Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping].Aluminum Die-Casting, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts,Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product,Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1.
Name
Formula
Typical properties
Uses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl
PAC 23
* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Back Adhesive 72W Solar Flexible PV Laminate Panels (PVL-72).
Dispersions: In this case,Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating[PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line),High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw.Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pantsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale.
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5)]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window].Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Y Type Brass Strainershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine,One Wheel Hovershoes].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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