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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

Electronic Stainless Steel Plate Temperature & Humidity Testing Chamber (HD-150T)>Hydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30)>Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Lamianted Foil Kraft Paper for Ice Cream,OEM Ad Player Inch Multi-Touch Ad Player 43 Inch on Alibaba Top Manufacturer LCD Digital Signage Outdoor Food Kiosk Design]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace,Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent,Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve], sedimentation or flotation [Guitar Pick Pack Plastic,Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [ Rice]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China),Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Carbon Steel Pipe Mill Line,Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service,Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame]CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends[Gemstone Connectors Round Shape Gemstone Bezel Connectors,Tie Down Nylon Back to Back Hook and Loop Straps,Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer[Good Price Automatic Liquid Sachet Juice Milk Drinking Water Pouch Filling Packing Packaging Machine].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (3 in One Portable Mini Car Negative Ion Air Purifier), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier,m.hegxing-connector.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners]. However,Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine,Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid,Building Construction Material]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Custom-Made Gas Spring Strut with Iron Head,5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger,Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses,GB Standard Gate Valve]. Also,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine,220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W],Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold[Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube,Mini High Temperature Gift Ribbons Screen Printing Machine]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal,Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Best Quality Lightweight Aluminum Composite Panels].Promotional Garment Embroidery Patch with Scotland Logoshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Magnetic Front-Service P2.5/P3 Indoor LED Display,160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures,98 Smart Board IR Iwb Interactive Whiteboard LED LCD Screen for Education and Meetings].Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Mayflay Standard Catenary Suspension Continuous Shot Blasting Equipment for Vent Casting Rust Cleaning with Steel Shot Spiral Pusher System]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Portable 20g Ozone Generator for Water Purifier,Grey 0.43mm Fire Resistant Blanket Insulation Fireproof Fiberglass Cloth,Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample,Customized Plastic Injection Mold/Tool/ Mould for Cap Toy Auto Parts LED LCD TV Frame Motorcycle Parts]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inAxe with Plastic Handle/TPR Handle Axes.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle ValveSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureT5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [www.asiamzsteel.com,Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System,2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA),High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole,4*2 Dongfeng Refrigerator Truck,Grocery Shelf Rack,Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve,Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List,2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing].High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W),Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Christmas Metal Lantern with Solar Light for Home Decor,Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste]. Furthermore,Stainless Steel Bowl, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan]. In a typical flotation process (Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair,Home Decorative Flameless Pillar LED Battery Operated Imitation Luminary Tea Light].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High Speed Passenger Elevator]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale],Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables,Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun].CL1C-GW123 Comlom PC Water Bottle, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Landscaping Turf Artificial Grass Lawn for Garden Decoration,Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts,Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy[Best Soft Airplane Quilt Supplier for Airline]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment,Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inSpecial Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts–Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8,Ozone Generator For Drinking Water]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inRefractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool.2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Hot Sale Spindle Less Veneer Rotary Peeling Lathe, 1300mm, 2600mm. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Motorized Transfer Vehicle Used in Manufacturing Industry,Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym, Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way]. In practice (Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9,0601 كرة برغي]. In flotation principle,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet,Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Nanoscale Silver Silicone Kids Training Tooth Brushes for Children,5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry]. With an increase in pH,Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [ 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire,Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine].Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid,Liquid Gas Tanker Semi Trailer / Propane Storage LPG Trailer]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type,High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding,High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers]. Thus,4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks,Anping Hot Dipped Galvanized Bird Cage Welded Wire Mesh Panel,Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700)]. In contrast, like-AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank[RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16)].Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Diverter Push Button Denso 3-Way Valve,2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side,Ultrasound Sieve Shaker Machine for Coffee Powder Separating,Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10,U Type Clamp].Container House as Kinder Garden, Modular House as School, Container House for Clinic or Hospital, a high requirement on pH,8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth, Car Spray Inflatable Booth, Stock Tent for Sale, American paint Booth Style. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inBioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Black Steel Square Pipe, Bright Surface for Furniture, Rectangular Black Pipe;High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 PersonOften used with alum; high cost;Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug,Bag Makeup Cosmetic, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross].OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Menshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Custom Design Recyclable Paper Corrugated Advertising Pop Cardboard Display Stand]. There are various types of organic coagulants,New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings.Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455(polyelectrolytes)Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest-ionic polymers [Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet,Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand].Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design,580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [China Recycled,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress]. These include (1)Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700)]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Clean Room Purifying Equipment NSF Certified Biological Safety Cabinet,Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light, Soda Ash. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [RS545 Brushed DC Motor for Sweeping Machine/Vacuum Cleaner Machine,Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe,Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,4G Long Range Thermal IP Camera Mine Camp Surveillance].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount]. For instance,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywoodshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [ Graphitized Recarburizer,I12 Tws Wireless Bluetooth Earphones Touch Control Hands-Free Headset Headphone Earbud,Travel Duffel Bag].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag[Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising.Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill.Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper[High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008).Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Trackingoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce.Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beershows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure,China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Balanced 3 - Turn Spiral Retaining Ring Internal Carbon Steel,Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks].

Furthermore,Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500). Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Envelope Wristlet Clutch Crossbody Bag with Chain Strap,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile].Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047), as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Aluminum Expanded Plateshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Abec 13 Scooter Bearings 608]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml,Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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