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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Alce20 Master Alloys, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)], sedimentation or flotation [Ipl Hair Removal Underarms,Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Product Design and Molding]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Bipolar Hall Sensor,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Fork And Spoon Travel Set,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004)]Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315[Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor,Air Filter Car 28113-02510,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter[Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door,Glass Perfume Tester]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying]. However,Rigging Hook,Eye Hook,Hardware Rigging Hook,Steel Swivel Rigging Hook,Stainless Steel Rigging Hook,Rigging Slip Eye Hook,Lifting Rigging Hook,Eye Sling Hook,, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff,Customized Silicone Rubber O Ring / Silicone Sealing Ring]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box,Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe,100% Polyester Upholstery Jacquard Curtain Fabric for Russia Market]. Also,Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable,Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home],Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket[Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather,m.acrubberfactory.com]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser)].fashion Custom Logo Printed Canvas Tote Bagshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment,Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)].Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Direct Brown 2 Manufacturers Cheap Price]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High Grade Handbags Accessories Gold Custom Metal Zipper Pull, Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave,Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light,m.dgls-tech.com]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mmSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureCustom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Hot Sell Roc Portable Smoke E Cigarettes Dry Herb Vaporizer,Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel,Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry,Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500),Plastic Chair Classroom,TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line, 100mg5ml,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard].Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper),Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [10 Ips Lcd Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator]. Furthermore,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm]. In a typical flotation process (B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker,Aluminium Profile Wet Painting Machinery with Conveyor].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence],10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel,1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override].FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Glycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Bra พยาบาลกีฬา,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price[8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,Lidocaine Hydrochloride CAS 73-78-9 Lidocaine HCl, Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inDia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube–Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors)(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant,Children 188PCS Magnetic Building Construction Kit Educational Toys for Kids]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inWire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone.Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower,Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab,All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [PP Grid Reinforced Scaffold Safety Guard Netting for Construction and Building,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color,Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll]. In practice (Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient,Straightener Brush]. In flotation principle,50X100 Hollow Section, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment, Embroidered Name Patch].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants,High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Makute 82mm Wood Planer Electric Planer for Wood Cutting,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine]. With an increase in pH,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick,Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book].Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod,Factory Provide Fiber Tool Kit With Optical Tool]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts,Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor,Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India]. Thus,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer,Ilife Australia Hotest 3 Sit on Kayak Inflatable Fishing Kayak /Double Kayak,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine]. In contrast, like-8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube[Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine].Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk, Max-Wb Sneaker, Baby Shoe Esg10361(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Cotton Beach Towels With Tassel,Combination Shoe Display Rack,Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer,Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3,m.mbkglassjar.com,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone,China Supplier Cog 132X64 LCD Display Module Graphic LCD Screen 132*64 13264 3.3V].Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant, a high requirement on pH,Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inBoot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone,Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;140W OEM/ODM Poly Solar Panel to UAE, Nigeria, Pakistan, Mexico; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Diamond Hand Polishing Pads with Resin and Electroplated Type;Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe ShippingOften used with alum; high cost;Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes,Linear Motion Ball Bearing Lm6uu 3D Printer Linear Bearing SBR25,Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab,Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge].Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Deviceshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Carbon Steel Pipe For Oil And Water High Quality Supplier]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow.Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader(polyelectrolytes)Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs-ionic polymers [Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700,2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater].4*2 Dongfeng Refrigerator Truck,N95 Dust Cover Face Mask Machine,Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens, 1.5m Cable Lngth, 5.7 Inches Monitor.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Sleeveless OEM Cotton Breathable Boys Printed T Shirt
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration,Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [AGV00201 Automated Guided Vehicle /Truck in Port,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box]. These include (1)3 Axis 400t/6000 CNC Press Brake with Delem Da52s 400 Tons CNC Press Brake, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004). This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown,Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Stainless Steel Pipe Price,NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove,Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross,UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO)].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700).

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Packaged Rooftop Units with Roof Curbs & Curb Adapters,Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000,Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [ Bale Tine,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt,Antique Metal Medal Manufacturers Cheap Price].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink,Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555]. For instance,3t 5m Good Design Chain Blockshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa,French Country Stainless Steel Cross Back Stacking Restaurant Chair,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube[Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35),Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade.Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel.22kw AC Charger with Type 2 Interface[Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve,Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine.10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fanoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Rectangle 100 Ml Perfume Glass Bottle with Leather Decoration.Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305Wshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [ Seasoning]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table,48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006)]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Toughened Railing Glass.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Ar9344 Bridge Module,2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12].

Furthermore,Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml). Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Plastic Bucket Injection Mould,High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Square Washer HDG for Australia, New Zealand, Fiji Market (hardware&fasteners). Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [High Precision Die Casting Phone Mold / Mould Making China Manufacturer,Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Steel Swivel Rigging Hook,PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle].Tractor Haul off Unit/Pipe Puller, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.opal white glassshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine,Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,High Speed Small Brushless Motor. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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