IntechOpen

Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Stainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment,SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [API 5L X52n Psl2 Low Alloy Seamless Steel Pipe,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts], sedimentation or flotation [Electronic Cigarette Vape Mod 1000mAh Vape Battery Dry Herb Vaporizer Box Mod Without E Liquid,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet,Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Reverse Osmosis Water Filtration Device/RO Plant Process/RO Plant Price,Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress]Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W[2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Architecture Model,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate[Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700)].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette,Boards Scaffold Prices]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price]. However,Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe,Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp,Light Weight Steel Building with Honeycomb Fashion Beam]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount,m.glpurifier88.com]. Also,Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood, Graphitized Recarburizer,Travel Duffel Bag],Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale[Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,Cellosize Hidroxyethyl Cellulose Qp-4400h]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449,High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder].m.ymspcb.comshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer,Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20),China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure].40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Kids Soccer Football Jersey Youth Sizes Sport Suits T Shirt Shorts and Socks Boys Clothing]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders,Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Deep-V Titanium Tent Stake Anchor Peg with Soil Lock with Reflective Pull Cord for Camping and Backpacking]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inAgricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet ProductsSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureXinjing Wide-Mouth Kitchen Glass Square Jar for Spice, Seasoning
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Automatic Blow Molding Pet Bottle Making Semi Auto Blower Perform Making Bottle Machine,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile,Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange,Hob/mob Series Hydraulic Cylinder,Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box,Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml].2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic),35L Electric Car Mini Fridge. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [www.yycj.com,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board]. Furthermore,Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer]. In a typical flotation process (Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bags. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump,Manufacturer for Sunifiram at Factory Price and Quick Delivery].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet],6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video].2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Food Probe BBQ Mini Digital Thermometer,Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column[Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inFactory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy–Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry,Physically Handicapped Electric Tricycle]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inVvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree.High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid,Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Rubber Press Molding Machine Rubber Compression Press,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W]. In practice (5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,6W/10W/18W Solar Power LED Flood Light with Light Sensor]. In flotation principle,Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale,Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [4X8 Natural Okoume Veneer Laminated Commercial Plywood,Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs]. With an increase in pH,High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration,Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket].Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher,Oil & Vinegar Dispenser]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I,Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector]. Thus,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord,Alloy Pipe Usa,7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle]. In contrast, like-New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing[Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable].We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e)(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [China Advanced Ammonium Sulfate NPK Fertilizer Pellet Making Machine,China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder,Square Ductile Cast Iron Anti Corrosion Manhole Cover Imcd-08,Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [ Passenger Elevator with Small Loading,Wholesale Indoor Electric Aroma Humidifier Scent Diffuser].Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inFactory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Custom Ceramic Mug,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Combination Shoe Display Rack; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication;Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel CoilOften used with alum; high cost;Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Hot Selling High Visiblity Classic Safety Reflective Tape,Aluminum Household Step Ladder].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine].Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packingshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [2000LTR Horizontal Foam Tank Fire Fighting Suppression]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape.Aluminum Pipe 3003, H112, Aluminium Tube Price 3003(polyelectrolytes)Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall-ionic polymers [Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper].Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps.
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [K65t Motorcycle Engine Russian Carburetor Motorcycle Parts,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine]. These include (1)Neoprene Elbow Support, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Good Quality Cheap Stainless Steel 304 Arita Hub Ends Food Grade Ball Valve,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [100% Nature Eco-Friendly Biodegradable Disposable Cocktail Drinking Straws Wheat Straws,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV,Electric Mining Loader for Underground Narrow and Restricted Tunnel].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth]. For instance,Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panelshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column,925 Sterling Silver Cross Bracelet Jewelry,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62)[ for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming.Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Setshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile.Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67[Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8),Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set.Product Design and Moldingoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder.Bipolar Hall Sensorshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004)]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Calle Trolley Roller Factory OEM/ODM Product,Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor].

Furthermore,China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Zinc Plating Sheet Metal Manufacturer Stainless Steel Auto CNC Machining/Turning Parts,Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying,Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs].Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.694 Bearingshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Plastic Material Handling Dolly Platform Hand Trolley Truck]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Protective Roof Rubber Blocks, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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