IntechOpen

AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

22kw AC Charger with Type 2 Interface>Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising>China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price

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Abstract

Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%.2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts,Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Auto Feeding Linen Cutting Machine,T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Transparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1,N95 Dust Cover Face Mask Machine,STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate], sedimentation or flotation [Hot Sales Dlc ETL cETL CREE Chip 80W Street Lamp Retrofit Kit,Oil Gas Line Pipe] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person,Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel Shoes]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Corrugated Fibreglass Roofing,PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India]Container House as Kinder Garden, Modular House as School, Container House for Clinic or Hospital[Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle,Hot Sale Used in Prefab House Triple Wall Transparent Roof Panel Lexan Polycarbonate X Type Sun Sheet,En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth, Car Spray Inflatable Booth, Stock Tent for Sale, American paint Booth Style[Factory Price 0.5mm Clear Plastic Pet Film for Vacuum Forming].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm,Root Vegetable Carrot Potato and Ginger Peanut Washer]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles,35L Electric Car Mini Fridge]. However,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market,Automatic Chamfering Machine]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera,1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05),www.jyhypower.com]. Also,Black Steel Square Pipe, Bright Surface for Furniture, Rectangular Black Pipe, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights,APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery,Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display],High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person[Tractor and Implements Disc Plough Harrow Mower Slasher 4 in 1 Front Loader Agricultural Equipments,www.sinoriseind.com]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09),(Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine,Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine].www.outdoorgamefactory.comshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [OEM Service for Motorcycle Hoist in China,Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008,Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags].Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Hollow Wire Face Shaped Earrings Face]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration,Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70)]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose,Pn16 Flange]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inMagnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455Suspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureWholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q),Diamond Hand Polishing Pads with Resin and Electroplated Type]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Cummins truck diesel motor engine QSB parts 3963815 common rail,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale,25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner,PVC Shrink Sleeve Label for Drinking Water Bottle,Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket,Hl/No. 4 316L 1.4404 Stainless Steel Pipe/Tube for Outdoor Use,OEM Investment Casting for Pump Part,Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit,2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision].580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck),Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [m.mjbagging.com,Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole]. Furthermore,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Good Quality 600mm 9W Energy Saving Aluminum 160lm/W LED Tube Light]. In a typical flotation process (Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Durable Stage Lifting Tools High Quality PA Series Mini Electric Wire Rope Hoist 100kgs to 1000kgs with Trolley,Medical HIV1 2 Rapid Test HIV Home Use Test Kits].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chiller]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)],Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Dongfeng 10000L Sewer Jetting Truck Industrial Sewer Jetting Truck,Custom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men].Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Types Of Tensile Membrane Structures,Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag[High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inStainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t–Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube,ISO Certoficated Multigauge Automatic Computer Flat Knitting Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA.Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment,Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Bolt,Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Ultrasonic Cleaning Equipment 2.5L Fruit and Vegetable Washer for Home Use,Large Damping Compression Spring for Stage Spring with Black Helix,Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade]. In practice (High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price,Cbd Capsules]. In flotation principle,Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector,Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain,Android Video Interface Car GPS Navigation System for 2014-2018 Year Mercedes-Benz C-Class A205]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [WBP Glue Marine Plywood Film Faced Plywood for Construction,China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mould]. With an increase in pH,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump,Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site].Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine,Cp Multicam Military Camouflage Uniform/Tactical Military Uniform Clothing]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder,2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner, Hollow Section]. Thus,Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear,Outdoor Garden Decoration 114.66W LED Motif Light,China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valve]. In contrast, like-10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor[Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon,EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard].Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [PVC Hose Flexible High Pressure Air Pipe Hose (KS-814-30M GYQG),Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler,2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale,Full Color Led Display Video Screen,8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [China Suppliers Zhong Shan Cheap Wholesale Outdoor Waterproof LED Flood Street Light 50watts,Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#),Bulk Limestone Factory OEM/ODM Products].D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel, a high requirement on pH,Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inBonovo Me18 Mini Digger. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange,Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab;Foldable Mat for Kids Play MatOften used with alum; high cost;0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Portable 20g Ozone Generator for Water Purifier; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic,MDF Portable Computer Stand Holder Lap Laptop Desk,Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer,Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV].Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Roomshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Wholesale Police Search Light in Good Quality (SYSD-10)]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making.High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card(polyelectrolytes)110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone-ionic polymers [ HD Baby Monitor for Baby,Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution].Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side,Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088,Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm Tractor].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Design 3D Case Sticker Printing Machine with Mobile Case Skin Software,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose]. These include (1)CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck,Dust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer,Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Funke Plates&Gaskets,Glycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer,Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Industrial Alumina Ceramic Insulating Sleeve,2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [100W 150W 200W 240W 300W Us Stock ETL Dlc Dimmable LED Street Lighting for Playground,14-Inch Vacuum-Brazed Diamond Saw Blades for Metal and Iron,Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Igeelee HS-05wf 0.5-6.0mm2 Crimping Tools for Wire End Sleeves High Quality Multi-Function Crimping Pliers Tube Crimping Pliers,Rectangle 100 Ml Perfume Glass Bottle with Leather Decoration,Electric Operating Theater Table (THR-OT-S103B)].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer,PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector]. For instance,Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection Systemshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047),Marble Looking Hexagon PVC Self Stick Wall Tile Wallpaper for Kitchen,Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work[50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens.Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Colorshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine.Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box[Postbox,Container House as Kinder Garden]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient.Brand New Hbt80 Stationary Concrete Pump Trailer Pump for Saleoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine.High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005)shows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen,3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser,2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [corediamtool.com,High Sensitivity Archway Metal Detector (AT-IIID) Metal Detector].

Furthermore,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer,Powerful Output High Efficient Car Power Inverter 600W,275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Abstract Art Statue Mirror Polished Stainless Steel Sculptures,High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Sleeveless OEM Cotton Breathable Boys Printed T Shirt]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches, 420].Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Cnc Spinning Outdoor Lampshadeshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Rosen 4kw off Grid Solar Energy Systems with Battery Bank]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Electric Tempered Touch Screen Control Glass Panel Top Cover]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,New SMT Desktop Reflow Oven, Puhui T-937, SMD LED Soldering Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems,Full Tested LCD Screen Replacement for iPhone 6s Plus].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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