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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process],4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building].Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [High Output Rice and Corn Food Milling Grinder Machines,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008),Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce[Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inChina Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes–Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,Scalp Vein Set Infusion Set Use]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Four - Wheel Tractor,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill]. With an increase in pH,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
2.2.Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper].D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [ Great for Vintage,Factory Sales Dzg-10 Tank Rotator].High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card, a high requirement on pH,110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inAuto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine.
Dispersions: In this case,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine[Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone.1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywoodshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Retail Shelf Pricing Label Holding Strips Stick Price Tag Holders,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw].
Furthermore,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [10x10 Welded Wire Mesh 10 Gauge,Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips].
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fruit Juice Production Line, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Wedge Pump for Women. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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