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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut],99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1), Service Food Truck].Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Hyder 2019 Equipment 3ton Fork Lifter Electric Forklift Truck,Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve[Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale,Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inFashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b–Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools,20oz Fuguang Cheapest Price High Quality 500ml Double Wall Glass Water Bottle]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay, Black Excavator Track Rollers]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Trolley Sperm Semen Analyzer Workstation,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold]. With an increase in pH,Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China,High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole].Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel,Tape Extrusion Line].1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine, a high requirement on pH,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inLow Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:SKF Koyo Timken Bearing M249736/10CD 8578/8520CD Ee127095/127136CD Ee127095/127137D Ee127095/127139d Ee170950/171451CD Taper Roller Bearing. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol.
Dispersions: In this case,Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet[Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women, New Zealand]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case.6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Powerful Output High Efficient Car Power Inverter 600W(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal,2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [10 Ton Handling Equipment Crane Hoist with Forged Hook,New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter].Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.DC Fast Charging Combo 1 Socket Duosida 150A CCS1shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Color Coated Steel Coil, Ral9002 White Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil Z275/Metal Roofing Sheets Building Materials(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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