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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

Downloaded: 1551

Abstract

2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater.12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Borosilicate Glass Juice Dispenser,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing,4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine], sedimentation or flotation [Automatic Battery Cage Exporter Hot Sale Product,Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder,Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [3d Zinc Alloy For Iphone Usb Cable,Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV, Wedding]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light]4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board[Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products,Large Quantity Stock Raw Material Methyl Cyclohexane CAS 108-87-2,Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy[Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator,Ground Coffee Packaging]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels,Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday]. However,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof,Vp-0200 Intelligent Electric Valve Actuator Rotary Valve Motorized Actuator Low Torque Actuator for Ball Valve Butterfly Valve Quarter Turn Electric Actuator,pushpullconnector]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN,Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration,Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Food Grade 40ml 100ml Pudding Glass Bottle Mini Milk Bottle with Cork or Cap,Mold Plastic Injection]. Also,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper,Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit,Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair],Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt[Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve,Tractor Mounted Fertilizer Spreader Machine / Manure Spreader]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump,Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf,25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch].Digital Print Membrane Keyboardshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150),Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow,Wedge Pump for Women].Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [0.8 Ton New China Small Hydraulic Bucket Crawler Mini Bagger Excavator with Cheap Factory Price]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Small Home Plastic Injection Molding Machine Overmolding Machine,Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel,Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone,SAA UL Certified Driver 7W 8W 9W 10W COB LED Downlight for Home Lighting]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inDental Clinic Gift Kids Present Cartoon Train Toothbrush.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron CoversSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureSanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Clear Black Empty 15ml 30ml 50ml 100ml Frosted White Square Glass Perfume Bottles,Front Service Ability Ha2.5 640*1920mm Poster Screen for Store Advertising]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [High-Speed CO2 and Fiber 2D Laser Cutting Machine CNC Controls and Automation Systems,High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans,Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball,Stone Grinding Mill (YGM Series),Customization! Bdy380CD Horizontal Directional Drilling Machine,Kids Car Electric Toy Car Licensed Ride on Car,Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels,2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer,Wholesale Scc638 High Efficiency Water-Based Cutting Fluid in Hot Sale].6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest),Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [0.125-0.8mm Thickness Prime Cold Rolled Hot Dipped Corrugated Roof Roofing Zinc Prepainted Color Coated PPGI PPGL Galvalume Galvanized Steel Sheet,Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump]. Furthermore,Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Geyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate]. In a typical flotation process (Nano Titanium Dioxide TiO2 Powder), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof Materials,PP Picnic Folding Table Heat-Insulating Box Picnic Table with Chairs].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt],High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy,Hans Free Sample Stylish Lace Necklace].Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Fashion Enamel Cross with Crystal Opening Size Ring for Women,Ventilation Axial Fan for Cooling System], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor[Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inFactory Price 75 Ohm Rg 59 RG6 Rg11 Rg7 CATV CCTV Cable with 2c 2 Power Coaxial Cable Rg59–3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts,Egg Tray Plastic Forming Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine.Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Hot Sale Ladies Handbags Fashion Coin Purse Leather Wallet with Flower Printing,RS-380 High Power DC Brushed Motor Cordless Screwdriver,Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Elearning Training Solutions,License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold,Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine]. In practice (Automatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped Machine), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [First Class Small Permanent Block Magnets,Auto Die Casting Tooling]. In flotation principle,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Corrugated Carton Box Nc Cutting Machine,HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Capsule Size 3 Empty Hard Gelatin Capsules 100% Bovine Gelatin Vacant Capsule,High Efficient Lint Remover Sticky Roller]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [nfrared Sensitizing Material, 00cr20ni25mo4.5cu]. With an increase in pH,Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch,Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy].Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller,Anti-Slip Rubber Mat]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality,Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Wallet,Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid]. Thus,2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness,Plastic Cereal Single Wall Mount Dry Food Dispenser,05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G]. In contrast, like-Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs[Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry,Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine].Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Zoomlion 60ton Rough All Terrain Crane Rt60,PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder,Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [ Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity,2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts,Best Pacifiers For Breastfed Babies,Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors)]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OHions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake,Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire,Professional Manufacture Vegetable Fruit Dehydrator with Ce].Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit, a high requirement on pH,Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine,Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4
Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror;Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot ArmOften used with alum; high cost;100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish].Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Coversshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [70*80mm LED Pendant Light Aluminum Profile]. There are various types of organic coagulants,PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag.Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater(polyelectrolytes)0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering-ionic polymers [Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine].Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl
PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58
PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7
PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate,Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Full Automatic Cotton Picker Harvest Machine Spindle Assembly An274216 for Jd Machinery,High Speed Small Brushless Motor]. These include (1)Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Portable Laser Engraver 20W. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem, SMD LED Soldering Machine,Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [m.zetarindustry.com,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700)(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Astm A36 Schedule 40 Carbon Steel Pipe,High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30,Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,500ml Bottle].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store]. For instance,OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotionshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail,8 Port Fiber Media Converter Factory OEM/ODM Products,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile[Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Vital Injector. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315.Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46)shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel.Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket[14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision.Aluminum Pipe 3003outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging.High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Formingshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Changchai Single Cylinder Engine 12V 0.8kw Starting Motor (QD1332),Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part].

Furthermore,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Automatic Concrete Block Making Machine,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile].Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.35v Vickers Hydraulic Pumpshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity
[Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[ P60]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Off Grid 12v 7500w Inverter]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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How to cite and reference

Cite this chapterHigh Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer

Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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