IntechOpen

Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Thrusting Dildo,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask], sedimentation or flotation [anebon,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Regular Size Gear Hobbing Machine Y3150/3,Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs,Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket]Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes[High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher,Wall-Mounted LED Front-Lighted Bathroom Vanity Mirror 72 Wide X 36 Tall for Hospitality Grade,8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve[Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord,12W Dimmable LED Retrofit Downlight SMD2835 Lighting Fixture]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)]. However,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type),Standard Size Hot DIP Galvanized Metal Steel Grating Trench Cover]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder,Wholesale Modern Aluminum Glass Garage Door and Polycarbonate Garage Door]. Also,1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle],Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System[ Passenger Elevator with Small Loading,Clay Graphite Crucible Wholesaler Quotes/PriceList]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch,Custom Ceramic Mug,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton].Jinrui Self-Made Best Reducer for Concrete Mixers and Batching Plantsshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Aluminum Household Step Ladder]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing].Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [CE Certificated Wheel Loader (HQ912) with Agricultural Tire]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,Dry Cabinet For Guitar Factory OEM/ODM Products]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inHigh-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35)Suspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureCustomized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)OEM Investment Casting for Pump Part; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Small Take Away Meal Prep Food Containers Ab-1008,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,Jiansong Manufacturer Grinding Machine,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box].600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV),MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Tv 65 4k Uhd Smart,China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings]. Furthermore,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth]. In a typical flotation process (Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column,Stainless Steel Wire Round Frying Net for Picnic Barbecue Grill].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [ for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent],Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set].Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump

Polymer molecular weight (MW)TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [250ml unique beverage glass bottle with handle,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088[Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes,Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inProduct Design and Molding–High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Bipolar Hall Sensor,16oz Stainless Steel Auto Mug]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Aluminum Die-Casting, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inGalvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen.Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004)]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Wholesale Fancy Printed Wedding Party Paper Drinking Straw,Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer]. In practice (Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat,Scroll Trade Assurance Air Cooled Industrial Chiller]. In flotation principle,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying,Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Hydraulic Filter Element,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff]. With an increase in pH,Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Trailer

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box].New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery,Automatic Pet Brush]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable,Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam]. Thus,Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home,Heavy Machining,Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather]. In contrast, like-Back Adhesive 72W Solar Flexible PV Laminate Panels (PVL-72). This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5)[It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing].Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Racing Kayak Plastic Canoe Kayak Wholesale Sea Fishing Kayak,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser),Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment,Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate,Sinopec Butanediol Suppliers for Sale,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave,Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan,3d Projector 1080p Manufacturers Cheap Price].C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw, a high requirement on pH,7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inChina Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption,Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		6189-0533 2 Pin Female Waterproof Wiring Harness Assembly Terminals Automotive Connector;Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection MoldOften used with alum; high cost;Boyang Jumbo Bag and Ton Bag Filling Packing Machine for Fertilizer, Flour, Sugar
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer,m.damai-grinder.com,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel,Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim].High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industryshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [New Heat Exchanger]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard.Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale(polyelectrolytes)Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil-ionic polymers [Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500),TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line].2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12,Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb,Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05)
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [ 100mg5ml,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Commercial Lighting Ceiling Lamp 10W COB LED Downlight Ceiling Fixtures,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper]. These include (1)Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Vvvf Passenger Home Observationvilla Glass House Sightseeing Golden Elevator with Good Price. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator,Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm,B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [CNC Precision Plastic Rapid Prototype Mold for Toy and Auto Parts (STK-PLS-011),Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker,Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence,Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [School Sport Gym Sack Pouch Backpack Drawstring Bag,1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube,Knee Type Universal Milling Machine].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant,Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone]. For instance,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Towershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab,A/c Filter For Corolla,All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette[Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color,Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Comfortable Sportswear Colorful Sexy Cycling Bib Shorts for Women. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.(Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine.Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Formingshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan.Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters[N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient,Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine. Embroidered Name Patchoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping.Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plantsshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine,Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick,Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [230v 1550w Heating Elements,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod].

Furthermore,0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts,Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor,Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Truck Bolt 12.9,Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Pepper Sauce Packing Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine].Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Spring Wire Clampshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Combination Shoe Display Rack]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Dental Handpiece Spare Parts Accessories Shaft Bien Air 14.25mm with Hole Push Button Chuck Spindle]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure.

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