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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper].Drinking Strawshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [ Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012),Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler].Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Manufacture PS Fast Food Box Production Line]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction]. In a typical flotation process (Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Flaker, Granular, Powder, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,Onu Poe].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount],Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W].Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
2.2.Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [2018 Sexy Lingerie for Outdoor, Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List,Plastic Faucet and Mold Suppling, Injection Mould Maker in China[High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inLab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor–Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light,Hot Sexy Boy Board Printed Waterproof Board Shorts with Pockets]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions
Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate.1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Custom Tempered Glass Top,Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928,New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
2.2.Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance].Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35).
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale,Napkin Paper Hot Stamping Machine].Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners, a high requirement on pH,Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inMolybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating[Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger,Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw.Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Trussshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [PS Foam Plate Making Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Steel Precision Casting/ Lost Wax Casting/ Die Casting/ Sand Casting / Investment Casting Water Pipe Joint Fitting, Granulator Machine].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [50*100,Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System].Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Casual Wearshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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